At the beginning of the 13th century AD, a powerful grassland ethnic group, the Mongols, suddenly rose up in the east of the Earth. Under the leadership of their leaders, Genghis Khan, Ogotai, Guiyou, and Mengge, the Mongol cavalry marched eastward and westward, embarking on an unprecedented empire in human history. The empire included the east from the Sea of Japan, west to the Danube River, south to the Huai River, and north to the extreme north. However, due to the vast territory of the empire, the cultural and economic differences between regions were unprecedentedly huge. The conflicts between the various branches of the Golden Family, where Genghis Khan lived, and the struggle for the throne became increasingly fierce. As a result, the Mongol Empire, as a The vast military administrative alliance composed of the territories directly under the Great Khan and the four major khanates soon faced the danger of division. How to continue expanding our territory on the foundation established in Mongolia? How to govern the newly conquered Central Plains Han region well? These are the challenges that Mongo Khan’s successor must face.
The birth of great figures often accompanies the emergence of historical events. In 1215 AD, the Mongol army captured the capital of the Jin Dynasty, Zhongdu, which is now Beijing. Kublai Khan was officially born in this year, and this achievement became a birthday gift for Kublai Khan. As Kublai Khan grew up on horseback, the empire’s territory reached the pinnacle of human conquest history. Mongolia was entering its most glorious era, and the glory of its ancestors overshadowed him. In 1251 AD, Kublai Khan finally ushered in a turning point in his life. In June of that year, his older brother Mengge ascended to the throne and immediately gave him the title of commander-in-chief in southern desert and dry land. Kublai Khan finally had the opportunity to showcase his talents and took the first step in his political career. Unlike the northern desert region, which was full of deserts and Gobi, in the southern desert region, nomadic and agricultural activities intertwined, The interactive development of the dual economy has been a region contested by the northern grassland ethnic groups and the Han ethnic group in the Central Plains since ancient times. The vast Han territory north of the Huai River is also an important material supply area for the Mongolian Empire and a strategic base for the Mongolian army to go south to annihilate the Song Dynasty. Such a vast desert southern arid land is destined to become a stage for Kublai Khan to emerge.
The Site of the Yuan Dynasty Shangdu Capital Zhenglan Banner, Xilingol League, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Spring is cold and chilly, and the lightning water melts with ice and snow. In summer, this fertile meadow will be covered with golden lotus flowers, hence the name Jinlian River. It was officially on this grassland where golden lotus blooms that Kublai Khan recruited talented individuals to form the famous Jinlian River shogunate. Kublai Khan used this place as his residence for commanding the desert and arid areas, and built Kaiping City. Professor Wei Jian of Renmin University of China: Before and after the construction of Kaiping, he had already gathered a large number of people, including various generals who were accustomed to fighting, various strategists who were insightful, and various. There are all Confucian scholars, Taoists, and monks who have studied well, including those who are Han, Khitan, and Bohai people. He used all kinds of people, which became the great achievement he was able to achieve after occupying the world and establishing a dynasty, A basic reserve for a cadre.
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Chen Gaohua: He (Kublai Khan) is clearly interested in the culture of the Central Plains. He brought a large number of intellectuals from the Hebei region to his shogunate and helped him introduce the culture of the Central Plains and come up with ideas. One of the most representative figures was Liu Bingzhong.
Liu Bingzhong has been reading poetry and books since he was young. He became a Taoist and also became a monk, proficient in the teachings and rituals of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Liu Bingzhong was versatile, an outstanding painter, and a talented poet. He was also a mathematician, astronomer, and architect. Later, with the recommendation of his ancestor, Master Haiyun, he came to Kublai Khan’s side. As a result, Liu Bingzhong became a politician again. Liu Bingzhong once presented a ten thousand word book to Kublai Khan, which was a governance strategy that combined ancient Chinese political logic with the Mongolian system, including the adoption of Han law, the establishment of schools, the selection of talents, and prohibition. Slaughtering the city, pacifying the people, light corv é e labor, reducing taxes, promoting water conservancy, and encouraging agriculture and mulberry cultivation, among which adopting the Han method was the core of Liu Bingzhong’s governance philosophy, and Kublai Khan almost completely accepted the Wan Yan Shu.
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Chen Gaohua: The main reflection of Liu Bingzhong’s political ideology is his Ten Thousand Words Book, which puts forward a programmatic sentence that is to achieve success immediately, not to govern the country immediately. That is to say, the Mongols can conquer a vast area through military means, but if you want to govern such a vast area, you cannot use military means of conquest, so this is the center of Liu Bingzhong’s political ideology; The second point is that his ten thousand word book said a thing about obeying Confucius. He said that only by following Confucius’ future foundation can your country be stable. I think Kublai Khan listened to Liu Bingzhong’s words.
Tianning Temple, Xingtai City, Hebei Province
In today’s Xingtai City, Hebei Province, a temple called Tianning Temple is being restored and rebuilt. This is the temple where Liu Bingzhong became a monk. Xingtai, also known as Xingzhou at that time, was Liu Bingzhong’s hometown. During the reign of Kublai Khan more than 700 years ago, Tianning Temple also underwent a grand reconstruction. That reconstruction was due to Kublai Khan’s reform of Han governance based on the concept of the Book of Ten Thousand Words. At that time, Xingzhou, as a fiefdom, belonged to two Mongolian nobles. Initially, they continued the nomadic way of governing conquered areas, imposing extortion and plundering without any problems. As a result, the local people fled one after another, leaving only five to six hundred households in Xingzhou City, which was originally 15000 households. These two nobles had no choice but to seek help from Kublai Khan. Kublai Khan appointed his subordinate Tuogu Tuo, Zhang Geng was appointed as the pacifier of Xingzhou, Liu Su was appointed as the debater of history, and according to the Han law, agriculture, taxation, and other aspects were restored. The new policy was implemented, and within a month, the number of households increased by 20000. In less than a year, Xingzhou leapt to become the most evaluated local political performance that year. Afterwards, Kublai Khan successively established a propaganda and pacification department in his fiefdom of Guanzhong, and a management and strategy department in Henan, the base for the Southern Song Dynasty. He continuously accumulated valuable experience for future rule over the Han territory of Central Plains. However, the desert southern territory was only a negligible part of the vast Mongol Empire, and Kublai Khan needed a larger stage to showcase his abilities. The opportunity came unexpectedly, 1252 AD. In the year, Kublai Khan was ordered by Mengge Khan to lead a large army to march south towards Dali. Kublai Khan went south from Liupan Mountain and arrived at Songpan, Sichuan. His troops divided into three routes and crossed the eastern part of Tubo to encircle and capture Dali. Later, under the dissuasion of Liu Bingzhong, Kublai Khan changed his previous practice of slaughtering cities and used a policy of appeasement to make subsequent military operations exceptionally smooth. The pacification of Yunnan, the success of dryland reform, and the success of his expedition to Dali greatly established Kublai Khan’s prestige, but also brought him crisis.
Professor Wei Jian from Renmin University of China: With the continuous expansion of Kublai Khan’s power and economic development, he has more and more money and food on hand. Those people will say, “Look, your brother is becoming more and more troublesome in the south. He has so many things, and he has left behind how much he has given to the Great Khan. He may have ulterior motives. He has said so many things, and Mengge Khan also believes it.” So he said to investigate him, using the term “hook examination” in the past and “review” in the present.
The hook examination was extremely strict, and many so-called illegal tax evasion facts of Kublai Khan were discovered. The main officials under his command were almost completely caught. Kublai Khan felt uneasy whether his brother no longer trusted him. He decided to follow the advice of his subordinates and personally go to Hara and Lin to meet with Mengge Khan, admitting his mistake to his brother.
Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Liu Xiao: He (Kublai Khan) should have walked on thin ice and faced an abyss at that time, because he didn’t know if his brother would trust him again after he admitted his mistake.
This adventure was an unexpected success. According to historical records, the two brothers abandoned their past grievances and embraced each other with open arms. However, Kublai Khan’s power, especially his military power, was greatly weakened until two years later when the opportunity came again. In 1257 AD, Mengge Khan began to implement the plan to eliminate the Southern Song Dynasty and continue to expand his territory on the foundation of his ancestors. Kublai Khan was entrusted with an important task. The army attacking the Southern Song Dynasty was divided into three routes, with a total of more than 100000 people. Kublai Khan launched a frontal attack on Ezhou from the east side, and Mengge Khan personally led his army to attack Sichuan. Wuliang Hetai sent troops from Yunnan to Vietnam, and then through Guangxi, they attacked Vietnam. Going north to form a encirclement of the Southern Song Dynasty, in February 1258 AD, the army of Mengge Khan crossed the Yellow River and began the first large-scale military campaign of Mongolian policy to conquer the Southern Song Dynasty.
Diaoyutai Ancient City Site Hechuan County, Chongqing City
The Fishing City in Hezhou is located at the confluence of the Jialing River, Fujiang River, and Qujiang River. It is not only an important transportation channel for grain transportation and supply to the north during the Southern Song Dynasty, but also a necessary route for the Mongolian army to march southward. In order to guard the transportation fortress here, the Southern Song Dynasty used the fishing city built along the mountain as a military defense outpost. The fishing city not only has a dangerous terrain, but also has strong military defense. The Mongolian army can only choose to besiege the city. The Mongolian army fought hard for six months, but has not been able to attack for a long time, resulting in heavy losses for the Mongolian army.
On July 21, 1259 AD, the fourth great Khan of the Mongol Empire, Mengge, passed away at the foot of Diaoyu Mountain in Hezhou, and the Mongol army returned to the north.
Fishing City Site Museum – Chi Kaizhi: Meng Ge died in battle on the front line of the siege, which had a profound impact. Firstly, he eased the time of the Southern Song Dynasty’s downfall for more than 20 years; The second one prevented the Mongolian army from advancing towards Africa; The third also curbed the tide of Mongolian expansion throughout Europe, so it had a profound impact on the development process of medieval history in the world.
The death of Mengge was undoubtedly a significant loss for the Mongol Empire, but it provided an excellent opportunity for Kublai Khan to rise to power. At that time, Kublai Khan was advancing towards Ezhou, and news of Mengge’s death came that he adopted the strategy of the strategist Hao Jing. While negotiating peace with the Southern Song Prime Minister Jia Sidao, he quickly withdrew from the encirclement and returned north to Yanjing.
After Mengge’s death, Ali Buge, the youngest son of the Toray family, gained widespread support from various factions in Mongolia. He appeared as the legitimate successor of Mengge and tried to lure Kublai Khan back to Helin, forcing him to submit and ascend to the throne of the Great Khan. However, Kublai Khan was very clear about his brother’s plan and would not easily leave the long-standing Monan headquarters to rush north. The conflict between the two sides became increasingly intense. In March 1260 AD, Kublai Khan held the Hulitai Conference in Kaiping City, and immediately declared himself the Great Khan. For the first time, he adopted the reign title of the Han Dynasty, the Zhongtong Era. Generally, the historical community regarded 1260 as the year of the Great Khan. As the beginning of the founding of the Yuan Dynasty, a month later, Ali Buge held the Hulitai Conference in Helin and declared himself the Great Khan of Mongolia, marking the beginning of a fierce struggle between the two brothers, Ali Buge’s supporters were former courtiers of the Mongo court and rulers of various northwestern Khanates, while Kublai Khan’s main ally was the founder of the Ili Khanate, Hulagu.
Professor Wei Jian from Renmin University of China: Actually, from the beginning, Ali Buge’s military power should have been very strong, and those old Mongol kings supported him. However, the significance of Kublai Khan is that he has a group of people who are accustomed to war and can provide advice, and another group of people who have a strong economic foundation. In a sense, in ancient times, it is even more so now. To fight for money, you must have an economy. Without an economy, you cannot fight, so Kublai Khan comes from behind.
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Chen Gaohua: Kublai Khan’s greatest advantage was his control of the Han region. Later, there was a clear record that at that time, Ali Buge was in Halahelin, and the food from the Han region could not be delivered, leading to a famine in Helin. Once Kublai Khan controlled the food in the Han region, the entire city of Helin could not continue to support him.
Four years later, the struggle finally came to an end. Ali Buge, who had no choice but to admit defeat to his brother, met with great emotion. Kublai Khan asked his brother, “Who is right and who is wrong in our brother’s struggle?”? Ali Buge replied: It was me who was right, but now it is you who is right. The loser is being interrogated, and Ali Buge, as a descendant of Genghis Khan, is forgiven. In 1266 AD, Ali Buge mysteriously died.
Yuan Dadu City Wall Ruins Park, Beijing
The Mongol Empire officially began the era of Kublai Khan. After years of conquests, the Mongol regime began to shift its focus southward, and Kublai Khan ascended to the throne. This changed the traditional Mongolian zodiac calendar, using the Zhongtong era as the reign title. In the fifth year of the Zhongtong era, the Yuan dynasty was changed to the Zhiyuan era. In the eighth year of the Zhiyuan era (1271 AD), he chose the meaning of the Qianyuan era in the Book of Changes and named the country Dayuan. Dayuan, which was the Han style reign title of the former Great Mongol Empire, marked a transformation of the Mongol regime under Kublai Khan’s leadership towards the Chinese dynasty. The great achievements of the Dayuan era were bound to first complete the unfinished business of the Mongol Khanate. Kublai Khan Once again, the plan to eliminate the Southern Song Dynasty was put on the agenda. He appointed Ashu as the commander-in-chief and adopted the suggestions of Southern Song surrendering generals such as Liu Zheng. First, Xiangyang and the floating Han entered the river, targeting the main stronghold of the Southern Song Dynasty.
Xiangyang City, Hubei Province
Xiangfan, also known as Xiangyang and Fancheng, are two cities built with sweat. This place has always been a battleground for soldiers. The Southern Song Dynasty government worked hard here for more than ten years and established a very strong defense line, especially Xiangyang on the south bank of the Han River. The northeast side of Xiangyang is divided by the Han River, and the southwest side is guarded by Xiangshan. The city walls are tall and the moat is wide, known as the iron clad Xiangyang.
Director of Xiangyang Museum – Wang Xianfu: Because it was during the Mongol Yuan army’s attack on the Southern Song Dynasty, it should actually have three routes. The first route was the eastern route, which directly pointed to the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty, Lin’an; The second route passes through the Jianghan Plain south of Xiangyang, which is the middle line; The third route is actually the western route, which is the Guanzhong Basin entering western Sichuan and entering Sichuan. These are the three routes; So, these three routes happened to be the main north-south routes in ancient Chinese history, so if the northern army wants to attack the south, it must pass through the central line, and then pass through the central line, and must reach Xiangyang.
Inner Mongolia Museum, Hohhot City, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
The attack on Xiangyang was bound to be a tough battle. The Yuan army built castles, trained naval forces, and cleared the peripheral strongholds one by one. Kublai Khan specially ordered two Hui craftsmen to manufacture a large catapult, a Hui cannon, which played a huge role in the siege. Later, it was called the Xiangyang Cannon. In January of the tenth year of the Zhiyuan era (1273 AD), Xiangyang City was besieged for five years. The Mongolian army cut off the water contact between Xiangyang and launched a fierce attack with Hui cannons, causing the fall of Fancheng. In February, the defending general of Xiangyang, Lv Wenhuan, surrendered, and Xiangyang fell. The back door of the Southern Song Dynasty opened with a loud roar. Kublai Khan appointed Boyan as the commander-in-chief and led a large army down the river, with their troops leading straight to Lin’an, the capital of the Song Dynasty. The defenders of the Southern Song Dynasty surrendered one after another. In February 1275, Jia Sidao led the Song army to intercept the Yuan army in Dingzhou and suffered a major defeat. The Yuan army was unstoppable and occupied Jiankang, Zhenjiang, and Changzhou, Wuxi and other places.
In the 13th year of the Zhiyuan era (1276 AD), the Yuan army captured Lin’an. Empress Dowager Xie surrendered with Zhao Xian and was immediately escorted to Dadu. The Southern Song Dynasty was destroyed, and the remnants of the Southern Song Dynasty began their final struggle for the downfall of the Song Dynasty.
In May of the 13th year of the Zhiyuan era (1276 AD), 8-year-old Prince Yi Zhao Zhi was enthroned as Emperor Duanzong in Fuzhou. Two years later, Duanzong died of a sudden illness, and his younger brother Zhao Bing succeeded to the throne. The exiled court was defeated in Yashan. The navy of the Yuan Dynasty quickly launched an attack on the sea surface of Yashan, and the naval battle was extremely fierce. The Southern Song navy suffered a great defeat, and Lu Xiufu threw the eight year old emperor Zhao Bing into the sea and died. With more than 100000 soldiers and civilians, he jumped into the sea to die for his country.
Yashan Naval Battle Site, Jiangmen City, Guangdong Province
The remaining forces of the Southern Song Dynasty were completely eradicated, and after the Battle of Yashan, another important figure of the Southern Song regime was also escorted to the capital city of Yuan. He once wrote: “Who has never died in life since ancient times, and Wen Tianxiang, who left his heart to shine through history, was treated favorably by Kublai Khan. Kublai Khan repeatedly urged his ministers to surrender Wen Tianxiang, promising high positions and high salaries. However, Wen Tianxiang refused to surrender and instead wrote several poems expressing his loyalty to the Southern Song Dynasty:” Heaven and earth have righteousness, mixed with manifold forms, with rivers and mountains below, and the sun and stars above, on a daily basis. “Haoran, Pei Hu Sai Cang Ming, Huanglu should be clear and barbarian, Han He and Tu Ming Ting should be seen at times of poverty, one by one hanging in the blue. Kublai Khan greatly appreciated Wen Tianxiang’s integrity and personally summoned him. Kublai Khan said,” If you are as loyal to me as you are to the Southern Song Dynasty, I will have you serve as the prime minister, and Wen Tianxiang will answer. As the top ranked prime minister of the Song Dynasty, if the Song Dynasty falls, one can only die and not be born. Kublai Khan also said, “If you don’t want to be the prime minister, you can be a cardinal.” This time, Wen Tianxiang’s answer is even more straightforward: there is nothing to do except die.
Wen Tianxiang Memorial Hall, Anji County, Guangdong Province
On the ninth day of the twelfth month in the nineteenth year of the Zhiyuan era, Wen Tianxiang walked towards the execution ground in Chaishi. Along the way, he sang and walked leisurely. The onlookers blocked the road and arrived at the execution ground. Before leaving, Wen Tianxiang had no choice but to express his loyalty and loyalty. The blue sky was long and the clouds smelled at dusk. He asked the people around him for directions, knelt down to the south, and died calmly at the age of 47.
Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Chen Gaohua: We all sympathize with the Southern Song Dynasty. The downfall of the Southern Song Dynasty was regrettable. In fact, from the Southern Song Dynasty to the later period, its level of corruption and destruction was not inferior to that of the Yuan Dynasty. The sharp social contradictions in the Southern Song Dynasty had reached an unsustainable level. Kublai Khan destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty and established such a unified multi-ethnic country. In fact, it can be said that the foundation for today’s China to have a unified multi-ethnic country was laid down during the Kublai Khan period.
Liu Xiao, Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: Since the end of the Tang Dynasty, China has been in a state of division for hundreds of years. After the Battle of Yashan, the Yuan Dynasty unified the entire China, and the scale of this unification, or grand unification, far exceeded that of the previous Han and Tang dynasties. It can be said that he established the territory and territory of modern China.
The end of division and the return of the world to unity, with Liaozuo to the east, Liusha to the west, Haibiao to the south, and Yinshan to the north, the Great Yuan Empire established by Kublai Khan has a vast territory. This is the first national political power established by a minority ethnic group that has taken control of the Central Plains in Chinese history. What kind of way should be used to manage such a country with many ethnic groups and diverse cultures? In the central government, Kublai Khan established a Han style bureaucratic institution with the Central Secretariat, the Privy Council, and the Imperial Censorate as the core. Among them, the Central Secretariat was the highest decision-making and executive body of the central government, and the Privy Council and the Imperial Censorate held military and supervisory powers separately. Kublai Khan once vividly compared the Central Secretariat and the Privy Council to the left and right hands, so the Imperial Censorate was responsible for supervising and treating these two hands. This shows the importance of these three institutions in the Yuan regime. In the local Yuan Dynasty, the provincial system was gradually established, with the provincial government referred to as the province. Initially, it was a central provincial agency, and later it gradually became a local administrative division. At its peak, the Yuan Dynasty had a total of 11 provincial branches throughout the country. Provinces, including the relatively special Eastern Expedition Province established in Goryeo, also have various levels of institutions such as the Propaganda and Comfort Department, the Road, the Prefecture, the State, and the County, This is also a major change in China’s administrative system, and the province, as the name of a local level administrative region, has been used to this day. The national army of the Yuan Dynasty was mainly divided into two systems: the Su Wei Army and the Zhen Shu Army. The Su Wei Army was composed of the Qi Xue Army and the Shi Wei Qin Army. Qi Xue belonged to the old Mongolian system and had multiple functions such as the Great Khan Su Wei, palace attendants, administrative management, and even official reserves. The Shi Wei Qin Army was an army established by Kublai Khan in imitation of the system of the Central Plains Dynasty, with a maximum of more than 20 guards. The Zhen Shu Army was mainly composed of the Mongolian and Han armies, and the Mongolian army was also known as Tamachi, with three Du Wanhu prefectures responsible for guarding. In the northern part of the Yangtze River, the Han army, with 10000 households each, mainly guarded the southern part of the river, especially along the Yangtze River. Due to the heavy reliance on Han officials in the current Lianchuan shogunate, Kublai Khan’s early rule over dry land had always adopted a hereditary system of feudal lords, Until 1262 AD, the strongest warlord in the Han region, Li Ju, launched a mutiny that threatened the regime, which greatly shook Kublai Khan. Li Ju was also the son-in-law of Wang Wentong, the Han minister whom Kublai Khan trusted the most. After the mutiny was quelled, Kublai Khan ordered the execution of Wang Wentong. At the same time, he began to eliminate the power of Han feudal lords in the north, implement a centralized governance system, and gradually implement a four person system for selecting officials and appointing people. Han ministers were politically suppressed.
Liu Xiao from the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: His rule was based on the Han system, but with some reservations. At that time, there was an evaluation that it was called “Inner North Country and Outer China”, which appeared to be a Han system but contained many old Mongolian systems, called “Inner Mongolia and Outer Han”. This mixed Mongolian and Han system should be a very prominent feature of Kublai Khan’s governance.
Erenhot Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region
Today’s Erenhot is a busy border trade city and land port in northern China. Every day there is a continuous stream of Chinese goods. The railway line that runs out of the border and across the border is also the most convenient land bridge connecting Eurasia. During Kublai Khan’s reign more than seven hundred years ago, it was also an important station for Dadu to get to Helin, namely Chichi and Yulong. Posts have been set up long ago, mainly to facilitate the transmission of military orders and material transportation. This is a supply station for officials to travel long distances, as well as a rest station for envoys from various countries to Dadu and Shangdu. During Kublai Khan’s reign, the system of Zhanchi was improved, and water stations were all over the country, forming The dense transportation network centered on Dadu can be reached in Xinjiang, Yunnan, Xizang and Northeast China. With the establishment of post stations, The roads connecting Dadu and various regions have also been repaired, with Dadu heading east to Tongzhou, then to Jizhou, and then divided into four routes, heading east and north to Dadu heading west to Changping, and finally to Yulin Station and branching off, leading to Shangdu Shanxi. Dadu heading south, then from Liangxiang and Zhuozhou, has established a land transportation network. At the same time, Dadu’s important waterway to the south, which is now the Beijing Hangzhou Grand Canal, has also been fully connected. The smooth transportation has brought about cultural integration. The Yuan Dynasty society entered a period of great development, and technological inventions began to emerge. In the palaces of Dadu, the world’s first mechanical self ringing bell even appeared.
Restoration Model of Daming Hall Lamp Leakage at Guo Shoujing Memorial Hall in Xingtai City, Hebei Province
This timing device called the Daming Hall Lantern Leakage, driven by hydraulic power and shaped like an octagonal palace lamp, already has the function of displaying hours, minutes, and automatically timing. Guo Shoujing, who invented this self ringing clock, was an outstanding expert in astronomy, water conservancy, mathematics, and instrument manufacturing in the Yuan Dynasty. He achieved more than 20 scientific and technological achievements throughout his life, far ahead of the world level. The “Timing Calendar” he participated in compiling is also an excellent ancient Chinese calendar. The “Timing Calendar” sets the return year as 365.2425 days, which is only 26 seconds less than the actual time for the Earth to orbit the sun once, and is completely the same as the Gregorian calendar commonly used in the modern world.
Professor Wei Jian from Renming University of China: Many scientists emerged during the Yuan Dynasty because of the opening up of transportation between China and the West. Many transportation barriers in the places where the Western Expedition was defeated were also broken down, leading to the influx of Western Arab calculations and technology into China. This led to a very prosperous development of Chinese technology at that time, with a complete power structure and advanced science and technology. Ultimately, it was for the development of production. The economic lifeline of the Han region was agriculture, and Kublai Khan was very clear that in order to maintain social stability and fill the national treasury, it was necessary to attach importance to the development of agriculture. Therefore, Kublai Khan established the Agricultural Department for managing agriculture and the institutions for water conservancy construction. Water monitoring and issuing laws prohibiting the destruction of farmland for grazing, restricting aristocrats from occupying too much grazing land, summoning fugitives, and encouraging land reclamation, And the reclamation of farmland was promoted throughout the country. The famous agricultural book “Nongsang Jiyao” written during the Kublai Khan period, as well as the later “Nongshu” and “Nongsang Yishi Jiyao”, all played a promoting role in agricultural production during the Yuan Dynasty.
China Agricultural Museum Beijing
Agriculture needs to be developed, and higher requirements have been put forward for the improvement of production tools and agricultural technology. The variety of sickles used for harvesting has increased, and tools such as hoes, stirrups, and plows have also developed, greatly reducing the labor-intensive work of weeding and dredging. Agricultural water machinery and irrigation tools have also been innovated, and various types of water wheels such as overturning carts and high rotation buckets have been widely used. Water wheels, hulls, and continuous grinding of water rotation have become more complete than previous generations. The economic pillar of the Yuan Dynasty completely abandoned the nomadic economy and was replaced by the agricultural economy.
Kublai Khan, who was talented and strategic, was naturally not satisfied with just living a prosperous life. His role model was his grandfather Genghis Khan, who wanted to continue expanding his territory and plundering wealth for his golden family. This time, Kublai Khan turned his attention to Southeast Asia, and new targets were quickly determined. Japan, Champa, Annam, Myanmar, Java, and Goryeo were the first targets of Kublai Khan’s overseas campaigns, which were Japan by the sea. After five unsuccessful attempts to pacify him, Kublai Khan launched his first expedition to Japan. In March of the eleventh year of the Zhiyuan era (1274 AD), Kublai Khan ordered the Fengzhou Governor Xin Du and the Goryeo Military and Civilian Headquarters. Guan Hongchaqiu led 15000 troops from the Tuntian Army, Jurchen Army, and Navy to cross the expedition. The army successfully landed in areas such as Boduo Bay, but due to typhoon attacks, most of the warships were destroyed and had to return in vain. The failure of the first expedition against Japan did not disappoint Kublai Khan. In the 17th year of the Zhiyuan era, a Japanese province was formed to conquer Japan. In May and June of the 18th year of the Zhiyuan era, two large expeditionary forces crossed the sea in two routes to start the second expedition against Japan. However, this army of 140000 people encountered a typhoon again before the attack. On the night of August 1st, a hurricane struck heavily, with waves like mountains, and rescue ships collided with each other under the hurricane’s attack, causing great damage. Yuan soldiers drowned in the sea, and less than one-fifth of the 140000 soldiers survived. The largest maritime expedition in modern world history failed like this. Afterwards, Kublai Khan reorganized his campaign to conquer the eastern provinces several times, but until his death, he was never able to send a ship or a soldier to attack Japan again. Due to the huge military demand, the people were overwhelmed and the country’s finances were in jeopardy, which became his lifelong regret. His conquest of Southeast Asian countries also ended in failure.
Liu Xiao, Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: If the impact of overseas wars on Kublai Khan was that he spent a lot of money, and his financial crisis became apparent. At this time, Kublai Khan had to start reusing the Minister of Wealth Management, which caused a series of domino effects.
A large amount of military spending and national construction investment led to a deficit in the empire’s finances, and the Han Chinese Neo Confucianism ministers were powerless in the face of thorny economic problems. Kublai Khan had no choice but to employ the skilled financial management expert Ahema. Ahema lived up to his trust and implemented a series of new policies to increase the empire’s tax revenue. He registered all qualified taxpayers, implemented a national monopoly system, such as salt, tea, medicinal herbs, and even iron utensils, and increased taxes. At the same time, he increased the treasury’s revenue by issuing paper money.
Yuan Dynasty Currency Inner Mongolia Museum
From 1262 AD to 1282 AD, Ahema was the prime minister of the state treasury, earning a large amount of money for the treasury. Ahema’s rampant collection and tyranny were strongly opposed by Han Confucian officials, and also aroused the jealousy of many Mongolian nobles. On March 18, 1282 AD, while Kublai Khan was on his tour of the capital, Ahema was assassinated in Dadu. After Ahema died in a party dispute, Lu Shirong and Sange became successors. However, during the process of implementing fiscal reforms, the two of them clashed with the interests of the Yuan Dynasty nobles and officials, and their fate was roughly the same as that of Ahema. The finance ministers ultimately failed to solve the serious financial problems of the empire, and old age mercilessly descended upon Kublai Khan. One by one, his Han staff died, and his beloved wife, Cha Bixian, passed away, Five years later, his designated heir to the throne, Crown Prince Zhenjin, passed away at an early age. Perhaps due to a series of blows, or perhaps due to excessive loneliness, Kublai Khan began to suffer from increasingly severe alcoholism, overeating, and physical obesity and gout, which almost made it difficult for him to walk. His health rapidly deteriorated.
On the first day of the first lunar month in the 31st year of the Zhiyuan era (1294 AD), the traditional New Year’s Day celebration was cancelled due to Kublai Khan’s serious illness. Half a month later, Kublai Khan was critically ill. On the night of the 22nd day of the first lunar month, the founder of the Yuan Dynasty, Kublai Khan, passed away at the age of 80. He reigned for 35 years, and his body was finally buried in the tomb of Genghis Khan and the other four great Han dynasties in the north of the desert. Kublai Khan’s life came to an end in sorrow. However, the Yuan Dynasty Empire he founded did not immediately decline due to his departure. Like his ancestors, Kublai Khan’s military campaigns brought enormous benefits to the conquered people. Disaster, but what’s different is that Kublai Khan was not only a destroyer of the old world, but also a builder of a new order. He built a new system and implemented sinicization. Under the influence of Han Chinese scholars and officials, Kublai Khan and his Mongolian compatriots put away their butcher knives and underwent Han cultural transformation, which was a remarkable civilization and progress.
Liu Xiao, Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: It is not an exaggeration to say that Kublai Khan was a monarch with great talent and strategy, because when he was young, he had a great idea for the world, and indeed paid attention to attracting talents from all ethnic groups. He also complied with the needs of the rule at that time and practiced Han law, which were praised by later generations. Moreover, he created a unified situation, which is also a valuable legacy left in Chinese history.
Professor Wei Jian from Renmin University of China: Due to the establishment of the entire land of the Chinese nation by the Yuan Dynasty, it suddenly calmed down from the war and resumed production, allowing everyone to live and work in peace and contentment. Therefore, Kublai Khan should be a very important historical figure in this regard.
The Yuandu City Wall Ruins in Beijing, China
Kublai Khan was the first type of ethnic minority emperor in Chinese history to conquer and unify China, and also the first ethnic minority emperor to effectively govern the whole of China. His establishment of the One Country, Two Systems governance model of patrolling the Inner Mongolia and Outer Han capitals gave inspiration to future generations. The Yuan Dynasty, from the Kublai Khan era, further opened up the channel for economic and cultural exchange and integration between the North and the South, and opened up China’s path to the world.
Qin Shi Huang, Han Gaozu, Han Wu Emperor, Wei Xiaowen Emperor, Sui Wen Emperor, Tang Taizong, Song Taizu, Genghis Khan, Ming Taizu, Kangxi Emperor, Yongzheng Emperor, and Qianlong Emperor, all of whom were outstanding figures in their respective eras, have had a profound impact on the history of China at that time and after. Kublai Khan, the Yuan Dynasty’s great emperor, with his literary and military achievements and impressive historical records, can undoubtedly be included in the list of great emperors throughout China.
90 seconds in history: Beijing Hutong
In today’s Beijing city, hutongs have become the most representative historical symbol, but few people know the origin of the term hutong. This can be traced back to the Yuan Dynasty’s planning and construction of the Yuan Dynasty’s capital city, which is today’s Beijing city. Before the Yuan Dynasty, the design of Chinese capital cities mostly followed the rules of the neighborhood system. The high walls of houses were people’s residential areas, while commercial and trade areas were specifically set up. This pattern was not broken until the Northern Song Dynasty. In the initial design of the Yuan Dynasty, the walls were completely broken, and a quadrangle courtyard was adopted, with streets and main streets intersecting with each other. Hutonger, also known as a well in Mongolian, was used to refer to it as a well. The wide streets and interlaced hutongs have brought unprecedented convenience for people to communicate, making transactions extremely convenient. The Yuan Dynasty is home to a population of four to five hundred thousand people all year round, Merchants, mercenaries, travelers, diplomatic envoys, missionaries, and craftsmen from all over the world, speaking various dialects, gathered here. Persian, Arab, and Goryeo merchants transported horses, ginseng, linen, and other goods to Dadu, and then brought back various daily necessities, textiles, and books. Dadu became a medieval international metropolis.
