He was the earliest European scholar to delve deeply into Chinese Confucianism. He was the first foreign missionary to settle in mainland China for a long time. He traveled thousands of miles to China, and his arrival built a bridge of communication between China and Europe. He traveled north from Macau through Zhaoqing and Shaozhou, then to Nanchang and Nanjing, and finally arrived at his dream destination – Beijing. From then on, he never left this land again, and he was the Jesuit Matteo Ricci.
Compared to neighboring Hong Kong, Macau has now become much calmer. However, during the late 16th to early 17th century AD, Macau was a hub for maritime trade connecting China, Europe, and Latin America, and was one of the most prosperous commercial ports in East Asia. Throughout the long history, China and Europe have looked at each other from afar, fantasizing about each other. In 1511, the Portuguese crossed the Strait of Malacca and finally saw China’s figure. They were eager to enter the magical land of gold and spices piled up in Marco Polo’s writings. In the mid-16th century, Portuguese merchants began to settle in Macau for a long time under the pretext of drying goods, followed by Catholic missionaries. So, an era of contact, exchange, and integration between Chinese missionaries and European civilizations began.
Lin Jinshui: Because of Portugal, he has always wanted to do business with China, so he has always wanted to use the land of Macau, which we are talking about as a bridgehead, how to step onto China. On one hand, they need to do business with China, and on the other hand, they never forget how to bring their faith to China.
For many Western missionaries who arrived in Macau, their biggest goal was to go deep into mainland China to preach, and the most successful one in this regard was undoubtedly the Italian Matteo Ricci. The Antony Cathedral is one of the churches built by Western missionaries in Macau. It has been built and renovated multiple times and has been preserved to this day. Nowadays, an ancient mass ceremony is being held here, which has been going on for hundreds of years. Jesuit Matteo Ricci probably also participated in this activity frequently back then. As a branch of Catholicism, the Jesuits were committed to expanding their missionary work abroad. They received approval and funding from the King of Portugal and, like other Catholic churches, regarded Macau as the center of missionary work in the East, sending batches of missionaries to various parts of Asia. Matteo Ricci was one of them. At the age of nineteen, Matteo Ricci joined the Jesuits in Rome. In 1577, he bid farewell to his parents and teachers and left his hometown. After several twists and turns, he arrived in Macau on August 7, 1582. In order to achieve his plan to enter China, Matteo Ricci first studied Chinese in Macau. The square Chinese characters made Matteo Ricci feel very difficult, but he was determined to master this language. He wrote a letter to his former rhetoric teacher, introducing his learning of Chinese. You should know that Chinese is more difficult than Greek and German, and there are many homophones but different meanings in pronunciation. The structure of Chinese characters is really difficult to describe, unless you see it with your own eyes and write it with your own hands. As we learned today, I really don’t know where to start. After a period of learning, Matteo Ricci’s Chinese has made significant progress, but he still cannot enter mainland China. What is the problem.
Tang Kaijian: This policy of the Ming Dynasty towards the outside world emerged after Zheng He’s voyages to the West due to the presence of maritime forces. This was because China had a relatively large situation of opening up to the outside world during the Yongle and Xuande periods. However, later on, due to the particularly strong private activities of the people at sea, the Chinese government began to implement this policy. In addition, with the influence of the Japanese pirates, the maritime restrictions gradually became stricter after the maritime invasion became stronger.
Due to the isolationist policy implemented by the Ming government at that time, foreign missionaries were temporarily unable to enter mainland China. In 1552, the year Matteo Ricci was born, the Jesuit missionary pioneer who went to the East to preach, Sha Wulue, died of illness on Shangchuan Island in Guangdong and was unable to wait for mainland China to open its doors to him. In the late summer of 1583, Matteo Ricci’s opportunity to enter mainland China suddenly arrived. Jesuit Luo Mingjian was responsible for missionary affairs in China at that time. He spoke Chinese and appeared polite in his words and actions, leaving a good impression on Chinese officials. The Governor General of Guangdong and Guangxi agreed to Luo Mingjian’s request and allowed him and his companions to enter mainland China, which means that Sha Wulue’s dream is about to become a reality in thirty years. Matteo Ricci followed Luo Mingjian eagerly and prepared to take a boat to mainland China. In order to be accepted by the Chinese, Matteo Ricci and his companions had to make significant changes. They hoped that the Chinese would treat them as foreign monks, so they took off their Catholic attire and put on Buddhist robes instead. They dared not directly express their mission to avoid being immediately expelled from the country.
This is a dangerous and exciting journey, and it is also the most important moment in Matteo Ricci’s life. He will dedicate his life to the land he is about to set foot on. After some twists and turns, Matteo Ricci finally set foot in Zhaoqing, the location of the Governor General’s Office of Guangdong and Guangxi, which was his first stop in mainland China.
Lin Jinshui: Why did he choose Zhaoqing? That’s one thing. I came here to preach, and if I want to achieve results, what route should I take and the best way? I directly contacted the highest authorities in our local Guangdong. So, of course, all of a sudden, I thought, if the location of the Governor General of Guangdong and Guangxi was not in Zhaoqing at that time, he would go to Guangzhou.
Although there is not the gold and spices piled up like mountains depicted by Marco Polo here, the abundant resources, fertile land, and beautiful scenery are enough to surprise Matteo Ricci. From the moment he embarked on his journey to Zhaoqing, Matteo Ricci understood that he would have an extraordinary life. On August 23, 1608, Matteo Ricci wrote in a letter to Father Defabi, stating that respected priests, Chinese people do not believe in any foreign regime and do not allow foreigners to enter, except for missionaries like us who do not intend to return to Europe. So, dear priest, unless we are in another world, we no longer have hope for the possibility of meeting again in this life. The local officials of the Zhaoqing Prefectural Government received these two missionaries. In order to show friendship and gratitude, Matteo Ricci presented gifts to the Prefectural Wang Pan, but many were returned. However, Chinese people, including the governor, are very interested in the self ringing clock placed in their residence because this type of clock is completely different from traditional Chinese timing tools. The governor hoped to spend his own money and asked Luo Mingjian to customize a similar Western clock in Macau. The missionaries went to Macau and brought a foreign watchmaker to Zhaoqing. With the help of two Chinese craftsmen, they made a self ringing clock. Matteo Ricci learned natural science knowledge and skills at the Roman Academy hosted by the Jesuits, which probably came in handy. The Western artifacts brought by Matteo Ricci and his companions knocked open the tightly closed door of China.
Tang Kaijian: Entering China can be said to be a dream of Jesuit Catholic missionaries. They have been dreaming for decades, but have never been successful. Whether it’s the Jesuits or the Franciscans, they all want to find a place to settle in China. So he was in Macau, and they had already established their base, but Macau had not yet entered mainland China. At that time, Macau was a borrowed land. Therefore, if they could establish their Catholic Church on Chinese territory and their base on mainland China, it would indicate that Catholicism had already established itself in China.
Officials allowed them to choose a place to build houses, and Luo Mingjian and Matteo Ricci chose a vacant land by the West River to build a two-story building as a church. After the church was built, the governor gave it a very Chinese name, Xianhua Temple. This temple, with its diverse interior decorations, has attracted many locals to visit. People are eager to kneel and pray in front of the statue of the Virgin Mary holding a baby. At first, Matteo Ricci did not know where people’s enthusiasm came from, which was very surprising. But he soon learned that Chinese people mistakenly believed that it was the common practice of giving birth to Guanyin in Chinese Buddhist temples, and some even mistakenly believed that the woman holding the baby in the portrait was God. Similar situations continued to occur, making Matteo Ricci realize that spreading Catholic faith among ordinary Chinese people was far more difficult than expected.
Matteo Ricci turned his gaze to the Chinese intellectual class. Among his new Chinese friends, some were literati and Confucian scholars. Through interacting with Confucian scholars, he found that there were more common topics between the Chinese intellectual class and missionaries like him, which were more likely to resonate. So, he gradually shifted the focus of missionary work to literati and Confucian scholars. In China, Confucian scholars had a high social status, while craftsmen who made various objects had a low status. Although making clocks and watches could arouse people’s curiosity, it clearly could not fundamentally influence Confucian scholars and scholars. On the contrary, it would also lead people to mistake them for clock and watch craftsmen. So, what are the ways to have in-depth communication with the Chinese intellectual class. The gift that Matteo Ricci is going to present to Chinese Confucian scholars will completely change the geographical concept of the Chinese people. He drew a world map, which is the first world map created by Matteo Ricci that has been circulated in China.
From the 15th to the 16th century, European fleets explored the oceans around the world in search of new trade routes and partners to meet the needs of the emerging capitalist development in Europe. The geographical discoveries brought new geographical knowledge to people, and the world map presented the results of the Western geographical discoveries to the Chinese people for the first time. In order to cater to the Chinese concept of China as the center of the world, Matteo Ricci cleverly moved the Prime Meridian, making China still appear at the center of the map.
Song Liming: Our map of China at that time, for example, if we drew a map or a complete map of the world, then China accounted for the vast majority. First of all, China was the absolute center, on the left side of the center. In addition, there were several islands next to it, such as Japan and Goryeo, and that’s it. The world is like that, China is almost the whole world. Our worldview is like this, so the world map he posted on the wall of this Zhaoqing residence, first of all, where is China? It’s a little bit large, and it leans towards this, so Chinese people are not used to it. So Matteo Ricci made a compromise, which is to move China as a whole to the middle.
Chinese people have discovered that the world is so vast, China is just a part of the world, and the world is not as round as the traditional Chinese saying. The Earth was originally round. For Chinese people, this is a huge impact on their traditional geographical concepts and even worldview, and the world map has become an important medium for Jesuits to make friends with Chinese scholars.
Lin Jinshui: Civilization always has its advantages and disadvantages, but if something advanced comes in and is more advanced than the place it is located in, then it is inevitable that no Chinese scholar has ever been foolish enough to oppose their good knowledge. Therefore, at this time, we use cultural advantages, geographical discoveries, and advantages in Western science and technology to gain their recognition.
From Matteo Ricci’s first world map with Chinese annotations, to the Complete Map of Mountains and Seas, and later to the Complete Map of Kun Yu and Wan Guo, Matteo Ricci’s world map produced various engravings and picture books, which gradually spread to various parts of China. It was these maps that resonated with Jesuits and Chinese scholars with diverse cultural backgrounds and ideological beliefs on a technological level. Lima Dou happily reported this achievement to the Jesuit Association. You should know how much this map is valued in China, and it was personally printed by the governor in his official residence. However, he refused to sell it to anyone and only treated it as a valuable gift to influential people in China. The ringing of the bell and the world map earned Matteo Ricci a reputation among Chinese literati, opening up the stage for his missionary work. From 1583 to 1589, they developed around 80 followers in Zhaoqing. During these six years, Matteo Ricci gained a deeper understanding of China, and his attire, demeanor, and demeanor also tried to conform to the Chinese people. However, his missionary strategy of adapting to Chinese culture caused trouble.
In other Asian countries, believers must imitate Portuguese priests in terms of ceremony and attire, and the churches built must also imitate European styles. Matteo Ricci’s different ways of preaching have sparked strong questioning within the Catholic Church. Luo Mingjian returned to Europe in an attempt to explain to the Vatican their special missionary strategy in China, and at this time, the situation in Europe was constantly changing. Four consecutive popes have passed away in the Roman Catholic Church, and Luo Mingjian was exhausted while waiting endlessly. Later, he passed away in the city of Salerno, and Matteo Ricci could only stand alone in China and wait for opportunities. However, misfortune never comes alone. In 1589, the newly appointed Governor General suddenly ordered him to leave Zhaoqing. Six years of effort were in vain, and Matteo Ricci was forced to move from Zhaoqing to Shaozhou.
Chen Shilong: In the past, many scholars, including some Western scholars, believed that a major reason for Matteo Ricci’s departure from Zhaoqing was due to personnel changes in the officialdom at that time.
This viewpoint mainly comes from Matteo Ricci’s letters to the West, but newly discovered information suggests that Matteo Ricci’s departure may have had hidden reasons. This is the genealogy of a Shaozhou official at the time, which has been passed down to this day. The genealogy records a material that provides another explanation for Matteo Ricci’s departure from Zhaoqing.
Liu Mingqiang: In the genealogy, there is a special article titled “Biography of Lima”. The person who wrote this “Biography of Lima” is my 14th ancestor, named Liu Chengfan. He was a fellow magistrate of Shaoguan at that time.
In this genealogy, there is a record of over 3000 words of Liu Chengfan’s interaction with Matteo Ricci. At that time, Liu Chengfan was appointed by the Governor General of Guangdong and Guangxi to conduct a detailed investigation of the activities of foreigners in Guangdong. Due to the invasion of Japanese pirates along the coast of Guangdong at that time, an action to expel foreigners was about to begin. Obviously, Chinese officials at that time could not have told Matteo Ricci this significant secret, but Liu Chengfan also believed that Matteo Ricci would not pose a threat to China’s coastal security. So, he was advised to leave Zhaoqing and move to the relatively remote Shaozhou. Matteo Ricci was forced to move to Shaozhou. What should he do next to advance his career? Matteo Ricci began to implement his new plan. Firstly, he made a significant decision to give up the monk robe and wear the attire of a Confucian scholar. He began to seek opportunities to move north to enter the political center of China, Beijing, and seek the support of the Chinese emperor for Catholicism. Matteo Ricci became the first Western missionary to wear Chinese Confucian attire, and he persisted in adapting his missionary strategy to Chinese culture. In the summer of 1595, Matteo Ricci went through many twists and turns and arrived in Nanchang, where he regarded it as his new resting place. At the southern foot of Wulaofeng in Lushan, Jiangxi, more than 100 kilometers away from Nanchang, there was the famous Bailudong Academy, which was listed as one of the four major academies of the Northern Song Dynasty and was one of the cradles of Neo Confucianism in the Song and Ming dynasties. In his interactions with Chinese scholars such as Shanchang Zhanghuang from the White Deer Cave Academy, Matteo Ricci gained a deeper understanding and appreciation of Chinese culture, and developed the idea of introducing it to the West. In Nanchang, Matteo Ricci witnessed a grand imperial examination with about 4000 participants, which opened his eyes. The imperial examination was a system in ancient China that selected civil and military officials through examinations. In the Ming Dynasty, it was divided into three levels: township examination, provincial examination, and palace examination. Compared to Europe at that time, the imperial examination advocated the use of public examinations to select officials, which was relatively advanced. Matteo Ricci recorded the various details of this examination and wrote a letter to tell European friends, which aroused the admiration of Europeans for China’s official selection system at that time.
Stefana (Cultural Counselor of the Italian Embassy): The imperial examination system surprised Europeans, especially intellectuals during the Enlightenment period. Europeans believed that China was a country managed by Confucianism, and Jesuits in Europe were the first to discover this system. At that time, Chinese information was completely spread to 17th century Europe through Jesuits. At that time, Jesuits were particularly cultured and respected Chinese culture.
At this time, Chinese Confucian scholars were also reading Matteo Ricci’s works with great interest. Matteo Ricci wrote a book about friendship called “On Making Friends”, which quoted a hundred Western sayings related to friendship. This book was very popular. Matteo Ricci said in his letter to European friends that this article brought him a reputation, and people called him a talented scholar, as well as a virtuous person. This Italian, who originally came with a mission to preach, has unconsciously become an envoy of cultural exchange between the East and the West through the use of Western technology and culture, opening up a two-way exchange between the spread of Western learning to the East and the spread of secondary education to the West.
Wan Ming: He walked step by step to Nanchang, and his change of attire actually began. He had a communication with this Confucian scholar at the level of entering Chinese culture, which means he had a deeper level of integration. As is very clear from “The Theory of Making Friends”, after “The Theory of Making Friends” was written, it was actually understood by many literati and scholars.
During this period, Matteo Ricci was appointed to be fully responsible for missionary activities in China, and he was determined to accelerate the pace of paying homage to the Chinese emperor. In early 1599, the common people living in Nanjing were preparing for the New Year, but Matteo Ricci showed no interest in it because his hopes of entering the capital had been shattered. Previously, Matteo Ricci had arrived in Tongzhou near Beijing with a friend of an official. Unfortunately, due to Japan’s invasion of Korea, the capital was heavily guarded, and foreigners were unable to obtain entry permits. Matteo Ricci had to regretfully return and settle in Nanjing. It has been 15 years since he arrived in mainland China, and his passing years have made him feel urgent. The new position has also made him deeply aware of the significant mission he shoulders, and he longs to meet the Chinese emperor as soon as possible to complete his mission.
In 1600, as history was about to enter the 17th century, Matteo Ricci once again had a great opportunity to enter Beijing. With confidence and hope, he carried many carefully prepared gifts for the Chinese emperor and embarked on the journey to Beijing again on a ship transporting silk tribute. However, this trip was even more challenging, as Matteo Ricci carried a wooden statue of the Passion of Jesus with him. As he approached Beijing, this ordinary Catholic artifact aroused suspicion from a eunuch who believed it would be detrimental to the emperor. The eunuch locked him up with his assistants. The repeated setbacks and hardships made Matteo Ricci, who had a tenacious will, unable to help but feel despair and a sense of darkness in his future. After Matteo Ricci was imprisoned for about two months, good news suddenly came that the palace received his gift list. Emperor Wanli requested Matteo Ricci to send the gift list and its gifts to the capital. At this moment, the residents of Beijing were busy preparing to celebrate the most important festival of the year – the Spring Festival. This was the first Spring Festival of the 17th century, and after waiting for 17 years, Matteo Ricci finally stepped onto the streets of Beijing. This well planned imperial capital, once unreachable, is now right in front of us. Matteo Ricci, accompanied by the Minister of Rites, walked into the Imperial Palace, but was surprised to find that there was no emperor on the throne, and they could only salute a throne that symbolized the emperor’s status.
Chen Shilong: At that time, Emperor Wanli was a very lazy emperor who did not go to court or receive any ministers.
Without seeing the emperor, how could one expect his support to preach? Matteo Ricci once again fell into a desperate situation, but he was slightly relieved that the Western technological artifacts he brought helped him once again. Emperor Wanli had no interest in religious artifacts, but he was particularly interested in the self ringing bell. Matteo Ricci sent two self ringing bells, one large and one small. Wanli ordered the construction of a bell tower in the palace to place the large bell, and the small bell was placed in front of him for appreciation. He particularly liked this novel thing and was worried that the Empress Dowager would take away his love. When the Empress Dowager requested to take a look at the self ringing clock, Emperor Wanli ordered someone to tamper with it. After a period of time, the Empress Dowager lost interest in the clock that could not self ring, so it returned to the emperor’s side. In the solemn and majestic Chinese palace, the sound of Western clocks ringing the time could be heard from time to time.
Since the arrival of Jesuits in China, the Chinese imperial palace and the people have had a hobby of collecting self ringing bells. However, in the eyes of many collectors, they are not accurate timing tools, but exquisite toys, exquisite appearances, pleasant timing sounds, and complex moving parts. The ministers living in Beijing were very interested in the prism brought by Matteo Ricci. They were fascinated by this optical instrument, its unique shape, and the changing light and shadow, but no one knew what its purpose was. The world map presented by Matteo Ricci did not attract much attention from the emperor and ministers. Under the indifference of the emperor and ministers, Europe on the outskirts of the map was quietly undergoing many significant social changes. After entering the 17th century, European productivity was greatly liberated, science and technology developed rapidly, and Europe was transitioning towards modern society. The world map, the ringing bell, and the small prism reflect that Europe is about to usher in a new era of vigorous development. However, in China, from emperors to scholars, and even ordinary people, they cannot see all of this. Their curiosity about Western artifacts is only limited to a certain level.
Chen Shilong: In the era when Yangming School was prevalent, Chinese literati may have been fond of discussing philosophical things. After the trend of philosophy passed, if they were to be practical, they may have considered things like classics and history, and they may not necessarily delve into specific scientific and technological aspects.
The religious artifacts that were neglected by the Chinese emperor and ministers may be Matteo Ricci’s favorite. Obviously, the idea of converting the emperor to Catholicism could not be realized. Matteo Ricci admitted to his European friends that the path of missionary work in China is still very long. At this time in China, not only is it not the harvest season, but also the planting period. It is just the workers who work hard to uproot poisonous weeds and cultivate land, in preparation for future missionaries to sow and harvest. Of course, Matteo Ricci did not achieve nothing. The emperor’s love for the Western artifacts he presented enabled him to successfully stay in Beijing, ringing the bell and becoming a link between the emperor and Matteo Ricci.
He had visited the palace several times to repair clock machinery. With the ticking sound of the clock, five years had passed and Matteo Ricci was allowed to purchase land inside Xuanwu Gate and build a church, which is now the Catholic South Church in Beijing. The Southern Church was first built in 1601, and Matteo Ricci bought it for 500 taels of gold as a private prayer hall. However, the scale was very small, and it was not until 1605 that Matteo Ricci rebuilt it into a formal church, which was the first Catholic church in Beijing’s history. This meant that Matteo Ricci established a foothold in the northern capital.
Yu Sanle: After the emperor tacitly allowed him to reside on the Great Wall of Beijing for a long time, their status was significantly different from before. It was equivalent to the emperor allowing them to exist in Beijing, right? In this case, of course, officials would not be able to drive them away even if they wanted to.
Social banquets were a norm in the upper class society of the Ming Dynasty, usually three or four times a day. Matteo Ricci was very busy in Beijing, and he fully utilized his social skills to meet various Chinese literati, including Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, and Yang Tingyun, who were known as the three pillars of Catholicism. Xu Guangqi had a sharp mind and profound insight. He was not only a famous agronomist who wrote the “Complete Book of Agricultural Policies”, but also frequently studied Western studies with Matteo Ricci and collaborated with him to translate some Western works into Chinese. Their most important translation was Euclid’s “Elements of Geometry”, which had a significant impact on the development of Chinese mathematics. Many terms and phrases in the book have been used to this day. During his time living in China, Matteo Ricci also studied optics, celestial observation, geology, and more. Jesuits brought a large number of books from Europe, bringing new achievements in Western science to China. According to statistics, Jesuits translated over 400 books in China, of which nearly half were books in humanities and natural sciences. Nowadays, people can still see these works in some libraries. The trend of Western learning spreading eastward, initiated by Matteo Ricci, has a wide impact on Chinese culture, involving astronomy, mathematics, geography, calendar, machinery, and even music, art, language, and other conveniences, refreshing the Chinese people’s ears and giving them a preliminary understanding of the technological and cultural achievements of the West since the Renaissance. Matteo Ricci was also deeply attracted by Chinese culture. He planned to translate all the Four Books and Five Classics into Western languages, but due to energy constraints, he only translated them into Latin. In addition to Matteo Ricci, other Jesuits who came to China also introduced Chinese characters, history, systems, and culture to the West. These books were widely circulated in Europe and became the origin of Sinology in Europe.
Stefana: These translated books had a great impact on Europe. Not only were they translated by Matteo Ricci, but also by other Jesuits who translated Confucian classics. These books were very important to Enlightenment Europe, making Europeans believe that China was a country managed by sages and philosophers.
On February 17, 1609, Matteo Ricci, who was already 57 years old, wrote his last surviving letter, expressing his feelings for preaching in China. I did my best to work in this missionary area, and everything was assisted by the power of God. However, the results were ordinary, and I felt the need for more missionaries because this field was too large. At the end of last year, for some reason, a thought suddenly surged into my mind, that I was the only survivor among the first to enter China for missionary work. Apart from me, it can be said that no one else knows how the church was introduced to China. One year later, Matteo Ricci fell ill in bed. On May 11, 1610, the most Confucian Jesuit, completed his life journey. During his ten years in Beijing, Matteo Ricci was always regarded by the emperor as a watchmaker. He never had the opportunity to fulfill the grand missionary plan of the Jesuits, which was a lifelong regret for him. But he should be more pleased that Jesuits came to China and built a friendly bridge between European and Chinese civilizations, exploring, understanding, and exchanging with each other, leaving valuable cultural heritage for China and Europe.
95 years after Matteo Ricci’s death, a debate surrounding China’s policy of adapting to missionary work reached its peak. In 1705, Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty ordered the prohibition of foreign missionaries from preaching in China, and the window for East West exchange was closed. This is an ancient cemetery outside Fucheng Gate in Beijing, among which the most striking one is a tombstone that combines Chinese and Western characteristics. On the top of the tall White Marble tombstone, a cross is carved between the coiled strontium heads. The tombstone is silent, but it seems to tell the legendary life of Matteo Ricci, a missionary who came to China. This is the cemetery that Emperor Wanli gave to Matteo Ricci. Later, it became the collective cemetery of foreign missionaries in Beijing at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty. Famous Jesuits such as Tang Ruowang, Nan Huairen, and Lang Shining also rest here. As missionaries and envoys of cultural exchange between China and the West, they shoulder multiple missions of spreading religion, communicating culture, and assisting Western colonialism in expanding overseas. They come to China one after another, leaving their lives and dreams on this ancient land.
