This is an era of great upheaval, from the third division of the world in 220 AD to the unification of the Sui Dynasty in 589 AD. The 370 year division and war no longer unified Confucianism, and various local and foreign cultures competed in the chaos, either taking root or spreading. Amidst the clouds, there is a religious philosophy originating from ancient India that has traveled mountains and rivers, deeply rooted in the land of China. Over the course of more than 300 years of time, with blooming flowers, it has become an indispensable part of Chinese thought and culture, and ultimately integrated into China. It is Buddhism.
This is the most difficult journey on the Silk Road. In the deep desert east of Congling, a group of people are struggling to move forward. They are not merchants or envoys, they are monks, and the leader is Zhu Shixing, who is 58 years old and the first monk in China to be ordained. In 260 AD, Zhu Shixing and his delegation set off from Chang’an, crossed the Hexi Corridor, left Yumen Pass in the west, and entered the Gobi. They had been walking for several months and were extremely weak, but they still needed to spend more than 50 days in the desert to reach their desired place day and night – the Western Regions of Khotan (ti á n).
As the center of the Silk Road, the Western Regions were not only a prosperous place for commercial exchanges between the East and the West, but also a hub for cultural exchange and convergence between the East and the West. During the Wei and Jin dynasties, Buddhism flourished in the Western Regions and became the most vibrant social belief in various countries of the Western Regions. In the capital of Yutian, a grand Dharma assembly is held every year. In addition to monks, nuns, and disciples, Yutian’s nobles and common people, as well as merchants from the Central Plains and surrounding countries, attend the assembly. The capital city of Yutian is exactly the destination of Zhu Shixing. In addition to being able to participate in Buddhist ceremonies and feel the rich Buddhist atmosphere, he also has a more important mission. He must find the true Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures here and bring them back to the Central Plains. Only in the Western Regions can there be scriptures that represent the true essence of Buddhism to be found.
Lou Jin: The development of Chinese Buddhism is the result of continuous translation, understanding, and development of the classic teachings of Western Buddhism. None of these three are indispensable. What is the foundation of these three? The foundation is that we seek more classics from the West.
Buddhism originated in ancient India from the 6th to 5th centuries BC. The founder of Buddhism, Shakyamuni Buddha, was born in the state of Kapilawa in ancient India. After Buddha’s Nirvana, his disciples compiled Buddhist scriptures and scriptures based on his teachings during his lifetime. Starting from 260 BC, Buddhist scriptures were brought into the Western Regions by Indian monks, where they bloomed brilliantly. The Western Regions became the second homeland of Buddhism and the most prosperous region of Buddhism at that time. With the prosperity of the Silk Road in the Western Han Dynasty, Buddhism also traveled eastward and gradually extended to the Central Plains region. In the early years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Ming of Han sent envoys to invite two prominent Indian monks from the Western Regions. Their white horses traveled thousands of miles to bring Buddha statues and Buddhist scriptures. The devout Emperor ordered the construction of a temple in Luoyang city, imitating the Indian style, and invited Indian monks to stay. To commemorate the contribution of the white horse carrying the scriptures, the temple was named White Horse Temple. The earliest Buddhist temple in China was born at the foot of the emperor on the banks of the Yellow River and Luo River.
Zhu Shixing was the first monk of the Han family to receive precepts at the White Horse Temple. He spent ten years there and has never returned since seeking teachings in the Western Regions. Thirteen years later, the White Horse Temple welcomed back the “Great Prajnaparamita Sutra” that the Central Plains monks had long dreamed of. This 600000 word Buddhist scripture was meticulously transcribed and completed by Zhu Shixing himself in the state of Tian. His disciples followed his instructions and sent the scriptures back to the Central Plains, but he himself, due to his old age, was unable to embark on his journey back.
In the following 300 years, more monks embarked on the journey to the west to obtain scriptures. Their footprints not only spread to various countries in the Western Regions, but also reached even more distant India. In 399 AD, the monk Faxian of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, along with four other monks, traveled through the Western Regions to seek Dharma in India. 15 years later, at the age of 77, Faxian returned to China via the Maritime Silk Road. As the first Chinese monk to arrive in India, he retrieved several Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures, and the other four monks who had traveled together had all died in foreign lands. On the long road of obtaining scriptures, countless monks were covered by deserts, submerged by snow capped mountains, and engulfed by the sea. From land to sea, the two Silk Roads meander and stretch, intersecting in the hinterland of China. A 300 year long pilgrimage movement continues on these two roads, continuously delivering a large number of Buddhist scriptures to the Central Plains.
Lou Jin: This is a movement that pursues truth. When Buddhism was introduced to China, the Chinese people began to widely accept it, and the rulers became more and more aware of its importance. The pursuit of Buddhist doctrine, original scriptures, and more accurate doctrines contained a pursuit of truth. We cannot say that it is just a religion, but that there is no truth in it. Therefore, it means that Chinese people sacrificed everything to pursue their own truth, true meaning, and true religion.
The Great Prajnaparamita Sutra has been given to the White Horse Temple by disciples of Zhu Shixing for several years, but monks still cannot feel the true essence of Buddhism from it. The translation of scriptures has become the most urgent problem that needs to be solved, whether it is from the Central Plains or from the Western Regions and India, they have been trying to overcome this obstacle, but it seems that they cannot overcome it. These countless and arduous scriptures have been left unused in large quantities, both in front of us and far away in the sky.
After the rainy season in Jiankang City, the monks of Jianchu Temple are carrying and drying scriptures in the main hall. What excites the monks is that these extremely precious isolated Buddhist scriptures will not be put back into the dark and damp warehouse. The abbot of Jianchu Temple, Kang Sanghui, has found a new method of translating Buddhist scriptures.
Kang Sanghui was a person from the Western Regions who lived in India and was proficient in Sanskrit from a young age. During his youth, he followed his business parents to Jiaozhi County. After the death of both parents, Kang Sanghui became a monk. In the era of the Three Kingdoms, the Kang Monk Association came to Eastern Wu to promote Buddhism and was well received. Eastern Wu built the Jianchu Temple for him, and with a large number of scriptures being transported back to the Central Plains, translating Buddhist scriptures became one of the most important ways for the Kang Monk Association to promote Buddhism. Initially, the Kang Monk Association read Confucian and Taoist classics throughout China just to make it easier for Chinese people to accept and understand Buddhism. Under the pen of the Kang Monk Association, Buddhism more blended the thoughts of Confucianism and Taoism.
Lou Yulie: This is a period where we borrow concepts from traditional Chinese classics and compare them to a certain concept in Buddhism. In understanding different aspects, it has its own characteristics, but some can be considered distorted or distorted.
The problem of translating Buddhist scriptures has not been fundamentally solved. By using the known to solve the unknown, the monks in the Central Plains still cannot truly enter the world of Buddhism. The times are calling for a master of Buddhism who is knowledgeable in both China and the West to solve the confusion of China. However, where is he? History has once again turned its attention to the Western Regions. After the establishment of the Three Kingdoms, China experienced a brief unification of the Western Jin Dynasty, and before the resurgence of war, Fu Jian of the Former Qin Dynasty had just established his foothold in the north before embarking on a special journey. In the year 383 AD, tens of thousands of soldiers gathered outside Chang’an City. Their commander was the most brave and skilled general of the Former Qin, Lv Guang. Lv Guang led this army to attack thousands of miles, targeting turtles in the Western Regions ū] Ziguo, but his purpose of this trip is not to conquer cities and territories, but to compete for a renowned Western Regions monk named Kumarash, who is renowned throughout China. Kumarash was the most famous monk in the Western Regions at that time. It seems that he was born for Buddhism. At the age of 7, Kumarash, who became a monk, began to preach on the altar at the age of 12 and gained widespread fame. At the age of 21, he was revered as the national teacher of the Kucha Kingdom.
Lou Jin: Many high monks, when they see Kumarashi and marvel at his talent, will make predictions for his future. The fate of Buddhism in China in the future is related to you, and your mission is this.
The Kingdom of Kucha clearly did not want to hand over their national army to the Former Qin. Therefore, with the support of various countries in the Western Regions, they formed a powerful Western Alliance and began to defend the city of Kucha to protect Master Rosh. After an eight month long journey, Lv Guang’s army finally arrived at the foot of Kucha City. The laboring expedition did not dampen the morale of this army, which had experienced countless battles. In no time, they captured the city. Lv Guang finally saw his spoils of war, but the first meeting left the general who had just experienced a bloody battle feeling greatly disappointed. Standing in front of him, Kumarash was only a young monk in his early thirties.
Lou Jin: It refers to the pre Qin regime and the Fu Jian regime. The general and high-ranking officials among them generally have low cultural literacy, so when Lv Guang saw that this person was very young, he had a contemptuous attitude towards him.
At the time when Lv Guang defeated the Western Regions Alliance, another larger war had just ended in the Central Plains region. A million strong army led by the former Qin lord Fu Jian personally collapsed in the Feishui River and was defeated by the Eastern Jin army. As a result, the former Qin fell and quickly perished. At this moment, the army of Lv Guang, who had turned back to the Central Plains, had arrived in Liangzhou. Upon hearing this news, Lv Guang stopped advancing and proclaimed himself king on the spot. Kumarosh was left in Liangzhou from then on, and his difficult life had just begun.
Lou Jin: When Lv Guangyi saw Kumaroshi, he always wanted to try him out, let him ride a cow, let him ride a very strong horse, want him to fall off, see him make a fool of himself, and even force him to marry. This obviously does not mean what to do, but indicates that he truly does not understand Buddhism very well.
During his 17 years in Liangzhou, he was particularly important to Kumarash. Through repeated humiliations, he was honed to become more resilient and gained a deeper understanding of Buddhism. This eminent monk from the Western Regions not only spoke fluent Chinese and became familiar with the local customs and traditions, but also fell in love with the literature of the Central Plains. Reciting poetry with literati from Liangzhou was a common practice of Kumarashi. During the dynastic changes from pre Qin to post Qin, Yao Xing, the new owner of Chang’an City and the post Qin lord, once again gathered his army. This time, the journey to the west was not far, and they needed both the city and people.
In May 401 AD, a scene that occurred in Kucha was once again staged in the Central Plains. The army of Later Qin Lord Yao Xing annihilated the L ü clan regime in Liangzhou in one fell swoop. At this time, L ü Guang was no longer alive, and Kumarosh had been polished by the sandstorms of time into a truly knowledgeable and profound Buddhist monk in Liangzhou. Reality is always more cruel than imagined, or even more exciting. Lv Guang brought many hardships to Kumarosh, but it also made his life successful. After 17 years of rest, Master Roche set off again. At this time, Yao Xingzheng, the Lord of Later Qin in Chang’an, was waiting for his arrival with the highest national courtesy, along with the Buddhist scriptures that had been dormant for over 200 years, and the largest translation venue in Chinese history.
In this huge scripture translation field specially built for Kumarashi, the Lord of Later Qin, Yao Xing, equipped him with a team of over 500 monks to translate scriptures. Thousands of monks from various places who came to admire him crowded this place, and Kumarashi held the Buddhist scriptures and looked at Sanskrit, blurting out the Chinese translation. Kumarashi’s translation changed from literal translation to free translation, and his fluent and beautiful expression in Chinese language made the translation of Buddhist scriptures no longer obscure and difficult to understand, completely solving the problem that has plagued Chinese Buddhism for more than 200 years. In less than a decade, Kumarash left behind 35 nearly 300 volumes of Chinese translated Buddhist scriptures, including the Diamond Sutra, Lotus Sutra, and Amitabha Sutra, laying the foundation for Mahayana Buddhism in China. In the year 409 AD, Kumarash lay in his final resting place in Chang’an, which should be the best destination. It was he who presented the profound and melodious Buddhist scriptures that had been passed down for thousands of years to this land, enabling Buddhism to truly take root on the land of the Central Plains.
Lou Jin: Wherever he goes, he will bring his career and spread his followers. He will sow his belief and understanding of Mahayana Buddhism wherever he goes. Therefore, why Chinese Buddhism has such a personality is inseparable from a large number of eminent monks from the Western Regions represented by Kumarash.
However, whether it was Fu Jian of the Former Qin or Yao Xing of the Later Qin, their initial purpose of inviting Kumaroshi was not to promote Buddhist culture. Kumaroshi was originally invited to the Central Plains as a national teacher to assist in politics. Inviting foreign Buddhist monks to come to the Central Plains to promote Buddhism has been going on since the Han Dynasty. At that time, Buddhism in the Central Plains was more regarded as a foreign immortal magic, and it was also a trend during the Sixteen Kingdoms period.
In the 323rd cave of Mogao Grottoes, there is a panoramic comic strip that fully depicts the three supernatural stories of a high monk. He is the famous monk from the Western Regions, Fo Tucheng, who came to the Central Plains more than 100 years earlier than Kumarashi, and extinguished the fire in Youzhou, heard the bell, and washed his intestines with water. In 310 AD, at the age of 79, Fo Tucheng came from the Western Regions to Luoyang to promote Buddhism. Soon after, the Western Jin regime collapsed under the invasion of neighboring nomadic tribes, and the north fell into a chaos of the Hu ethnic group. At this time, Fo Tucheng did not follow the Jin dynasty’s southward migration. He made an unexpected decision and sought refuge with the notorious leader of the Jie tribe, Shi Le. Due to the legendary supernatural stories, Shi Le held Fo Tucheng in great respect. Shi Le established the Later Zhao dynasty and honored Fo Tucheng as his national teacher. Due to the arrival of Buddha Tucheng, Buddhism gradually flourished in Later Zhao, and the bloody killings gradually faded away.
According to historical records, Fotucheng had a huge influence in the north at that time, with as many as ten thousand disciples. In the states and counties where Fotucheng spread his teachings, nearly a thousand Buddhist temples were established, and more and more nobles, nobles, and people believed in Buddhism. However, amidst the hustle and bustle, problems gradually began to arise. The reverence of princes and the worship of the people elevated the status of monks. As a result, many people who did not truly worship Buddhism entered and exited temples to seek various benefits, and Buddhism became a mix of good and bad. In the year 348 AD, at the age of 117, Fotucheng passed away. After that, there were constant internal conflicts in the Later Zhao Kingdom, which further trapped northern Buddhism in a dilemma of internal and external affairs. So who could take on the responsibility of promoting the Dharma and rectifying Buddhism? This responsibility fell on the shoulders of an extremely ugly looking monk from the Central Plains.
Before encountering Fotucheng, Dao’an, as a monk, mainly practiced farming alone in the fields. This was not much different from what he did in his hometown of Jizhou, Hebei before becoming a monk. The reason why Dao’an could not practice like other monks was entirely due to his appearance, as no one in the temple wanted to see him. This ugly monk is actually happy with his work, and the fields have become his classroom. Here, Dao’an perfectly combines farming and harvesting with reciting Buddhist scriptures. So, more than ten years have passed, and he can’t remember how many crops have been harvested, but he remembers every verse he recites clearly. When Dao An left the temple for a study tour, perhaps it was because of his age that he became even uglier. No high monk was willing to accept him as his disciple, except for Fo Tucheng, who saw the precious essence of this ugly monk.
Lou Jin: As a student of Buddha Tutu Cheng, Dao’an is indeed outstanding because the characteristic of Dao’an’s preaching is that he does not rely on this peculiar technique, completely relies on his own understanding of the doctrine, and completely relies on the charm of Buddhism itself to move the masses and win over the followers.
The era of Dao’an’s rectification of northern Buddhism coincided with the rise of numerous northern powers and fierce wars. However, the rectification of Buddhism was also urgent, otherwise Buddhism would be completely destroyed by those who did not truly compare themselves to Buddhism. So, while leading a large group of monks to flee and seek refuge, Dao’an began to formulate norms for monks and nuns. Dao’an referred to some Buddhist legal classics that were previously introduced to the Central Plains, and then combined them with the actual situation at that time to gradually formulate a set of Buddhist etiquette regulations. From burning incense and setting seats to preaching on the altar, to daily practice of walking, sitting, and lying down, singing sutras and repenting, there is no exception. Even surnames have been clearly defined.
This is the Huguo Dao’an Temple located on the outskirts of Xi’an. It is said that Dao’an once lived here, and every day, Master Shi Hongxuan would come to this Dao’an Temple to pay tribute and offer sacrifices, in order to express gratitude to this ancestor. This is precisely one of the important contents of Dao’an monks’ daily practice. Before Dao’an, Chinese monks followed the surname of their master, and the surnames of various sects and regions varied greatly, causing disputes among various sects. Dao’an believed that Buddhism originated from Shakyamuni Buddha, and therefore stipulated that all monks and nuns should take Shi as their surname.
Lou Yulie: All monks in the world have the surname Shi, which seems like a small matter. I think it is very meaningful, which means that everyone has a sense of identity and a common sense of identity.
For the rectification of Buddhism, many people with mixed eyes and pearls were eliminated from the monastic community in Dao’an. However, Dao’an still faces an even more difficult choice: how to lead the large monastic community entrusted to him by his master? If he still manages to flee collectively, he is likely to be slaughtered if he encounters an unexpected situation; If we disperse the disciples, we can save our lives, but how can we promote Buddhism. The chaotic social environment of war forced Dao’an to ultimately choose the latter. Every time his disciples were dispersed, it was a life and death farewell for the elderly Dao’an. He always repeatedly reminded his disciples to strictly remember the precepts and not forget to propagate the Dharma. As the disciples left one by one, this old monk would follow the example of his master Fotucheng and go alone to seek refuge with Fu Jian, the most powerful military figure in the north, in order to save all living beings.
In Xiangyang, Hubei, Dao An didn’t say a word of warning to his disciple who was going to leave him at the end. Before leaving, the disciple asked inexplicably why, and Dao An told him that there was nothing to worry about. But this disciple did not risk his life to propagate Buddhism like his senior brothers did, but instead plunged into the secluded and elegant Mount Lu. He is the founder of the Pure Land School of Chinese Buddhism – Huiyuan.
Donglin Temple, the ancestral home of the Pure Land School of Chinese Buddhism, has undergone multiple damages and reconstructions. Today, it still evokes the style of the Wei and Jin dynasties, and its first abbot was Huiyuan, a disciple of Dao’an.
Out of admiration for Huiyuan, in 386 AD, the Governor of Jiangzhou, Huan Yi, built Donglin Temple for Huiyuan at the foot of Mount Lu. Since then, Huiyuan has never left Donglin Temple or Mount Lu. However, soon after, something made Huiyuan, who had originally wanted to practice peacefully in Lushan, increasingly restless. In the early years of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, a newly progressive prime minister proposed that Shamen should perform the rites of monarch and minister to the princes and marquis. This prime minister issued two consecutive edicts on behalf of the emperor, which not only required Shamen to follow the ritual system of monarch and minister, but also accused Buddhism of undermining traditional Confucianism. The related debate has been ongoing.
Lou Jin: Shamon disrespects the king, and it is necessary to handle the relationship between Buddhism and rulers well, because China is an authoritarian and centralized empire. When Buddhism entered China, it was already such an empire. In this empire, the ruler of heaven and earth, the personal teacher, and the emperor have the highest status. Loyalty and filial piety are the most important norms, which means filial piety at home and loyalty in the country.
Lou Yulie: Parents are here, not traveling far, we should talk about filial piety. Chinese culture is from filial piety to loyalty, and we will be loyal to the monarch, who represents a country’s political power.
The Prime Minister’s viewpoint is not unfounded. The continuous war has led many people to hide in the Buddhist monastic community, resulting in a sharp increase in the number of monks and a resurgence of a mix of good and bad. Some people believe that these are all caused by the monks not adhering to national customs, and the chaos in Buddhism has made Huiyuan very angry. However, what is the relationship between this and the monk’s failure to respect the king and his subjects? Just as Huiyuan was angry, a person came to Huiyuan’s door to discuss whether Shamen should respect the king in person. This person was the powerful minister of the court, Huan Xuan. Huan Xuan passed by Mount Lu while sending troops to conquer his opponent. He requested Huiyuan to come down the mountain to welcome him, but Huiyuan refused, citing illness. Huan Xuan decided to personally go up the mountain. He wanted to see with his own eyes what kind of person this monk, who was famous far and near, but did not leave Mount Lu. According to historical records, after meeting, Huan Xuan used the Book of Filial Piety to question Huiyuan, but Huiyuan did not use the Buddhist scriptures to refute it. Instead, he also used the Book of Filial Piety to explain the relationship between filial piety and cultivation. Huan Xuan asked Huiyuan how he viewed his campaign against the enemy, and Huiyuan said he wished you both peace and security. Huiyuan’s answer shocked Huan Xuan greatly, as he had already pointed his finger at the throne of Emperor Jin’an. Soon, Huan Xuan succeeded in usurping power. Preparing to start rectifying the chaos of Buddhist statues, he specifically wrote a letter to seek the opinions of Huiyuan and adopted them. In the end, three types of monks stayed in the temple, one was able to articulate righteousness, one was strict in discipline, and the other was able to recite and read scriptures and stay away from the world even though they could not sing righteousness. This standard is precisely the greatest protection for Buddhism. Huan Xuan wrote a letter to Huiyuan to discuss whether Shamen should respect the king. Huiyuan specifically wrote the Shamen’s theory of disrespecting the king. Finally, Huan Xuan issued an edict stating that Buddhism is grand and unpredictable, and all Daoists should not repeat their rituals. From then on, Shamen’s disrespectful behavior towards the king finally came to a conclusion.
Lou Yulie: Huiyuan has talked a lot about this aspect. Becoming a monk is a greater sense of filial piety and loyalty, because he is not only for a small family, but also for the whole person and sentient beings. Therefore, dedicating oneself is equivalent to contributing oneself.
Huiyuan, a high-ranking monk who never ventured out of the mountains, had an influence far beyond the mountains and forests. The Pure Land Sect he founded also originated from this and became one of the most influential sects in Chinese Buddhism. The sound of Amitabha Buddha has become the oral Zen language of Chinese people for thousands of years.
The entire period of the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the Sixteen Kingdoms period was the first peak of Buddhism’s great development in China. Whether in the south or north, the progress of Buddhism and the widespread popularity of Buddhism led to the flourishing of Buddhism during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. From the Yungang Grottoes excavated in the early Northern Wei Dynasty to the Longmen Grottoes excavated after Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei moved his capital to Luoyang, it became a witness to the flourishing development of Buddhism in China. Many thousand year old ancient temples built during that period have now become a world business card of Chinese culture. The extensive excavation and construction of temples and grottoes have also driven the development of Buddhist murals and paintings. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, painters Cao Zhongda, Gu Kaizhi, Lu Tanwei, and Zhang Sengyou were all world-renowned for their Buddhist paintings. The song “Fisherman’s Mountain” created by literary figure Cao Zhi also made Chinese music more unique.
Lou Yulie: After Buddhism arrived in China, it can be said to have a comprehensive impact on Chinese culture. From theory to practice, to folk customs and daily life, it permeated every aspect of Chinese culture, forming the main body of China’s traditional culture. Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism cannot be broadly regarded as foreign cultures because they have already integrated into China’s local culture.
During the more than 300 years from the Qin and Han dynasties to the Sui and Tang dynasties, Buddhism played an important role in cultural exchange between China and the West on the land of China. After the encounter of the wise and profound Buddhist teachings with the vast and profound Chinese culture, it gradually achieved its own perfect transformation, ultimately forming a magnificent and dazzling Chinese Buddhism.
