The Thirteen Classics are thirteen classic works of Confucianism, covering the basic content of Confucianism. There are 189 stele forests of the Thirteen Classics in the existing Confucius Temple in Beijing, including scriptures such as “Yi”, “Shu”, “Shi”, “Zhou Li”, “Yi Li”, “Li Ji”, “Spring and Autumn Zuo Zhuan”, “Spring and Autumn Gongyang Zhuan”, “Spring and Autumn Grain (Gu) Liang Zhuan”, “Analects”, “Filial Piety Classic”, “Er Ya”, “Mencius”, etc., which were the standard texts provided by the court for the imperial examination at that time. The calligraphy of the inscriptions on the Qianlong Stone Classics and Steles is a work completed by the Qing Dynasty calligrapher Jiang Heng over a period of twelve years. In Chinese history, it has been a tradition to engrave Confucian classics on stone tablets, dating back more than two thousand years since the Han Dynasty. The scriptures in the Han Shi Jing are a must read text for selecting scholars in various dynasties. The inscriptions on stones and the use of tree steles as models have an unparalleled and respected political status. They serve as teachers for generations and become the laws of the world with just one word. From Confucius to Confucianism and then to Confucianism, all of these profoundly influenced the fate of Chinese history, and the mention of Confucianism must start from the Han Dynasty.
Confucius Cemetery, Konglin, Qufu City, Shandong Province
This is the Confucius Cemetery located in Qufu, Shandong. On a winter day in 195 BC, a very special guest named Liu Bang will be welcomed here. At this time, Liu Bang had become the founding emperor of the Han Dynasty, holding the highest power of the Han Dynasty. This caused great concern among the guardians of the Confucian tomb. Even before Liu Bang became emperor, he despised Confucianism, represented by Confucius, and believed that Confucianism was outdated. He called Confucian scholars corrupt and even took off their hats to use as urine jars, in order to humiliate them. What attitude will Liu Bang adopt towards Confucius this time?
“Han Gao’s Sacrifice to the Sky” painted at the Confucian Cultural Relics Archives in Qufu City, Shandong Province
In the archives of the Cultural Relics Bureau in Qufu, Shandong Province, there are 36 painted silk copies of the “Confucius Sacred Monuments” dating back to the Ming Dynasty’s Chenghua Hongzhi period (1465-1505 AD). These painted silk copies showcase the life stories of Confucius, and a painting depicting Liu Bang’s worship of Confucius restores the true historical landscape. From this painting “Han Gao worships Lu”, it can be seen that when Han Gaozu Liu Bang arrived at the tomb of Confucius, he paid the most solemn tribute to Confucius and offered the most solid and generous gifts. This is the first time in historical records that the highest ruler publicly worshipped Confucius.
(Tang Li, Deputy Director of the Confucian Cultural Relics Archives in Qufu: The Tai Lao ritual mainly refers to the whole cow, whole pig, and whole sheep, which is also a relatively high standard sacrificial ritual. Liu Bang’s worship of Confucius opened the way for emperors to worship Confucius throughout history, and Han Emperor Liu Bang also issued a special edict, allowing the feudal lords and officials to first visit the Confucian temple before taking up their positions in the local area.)
The change in Liu Bang’s attitude towards Confucianism is closely related to the Confucian scholar Shusun Tong. Like other Confucian scholars, when Shusun Tong led over a hundred disciples to flee to Liu Bang during the fierce Chu Han War, Liu Bang was paying attention to the group of bandits who beheaded generals and banners, and did not have much favorable impression of Shusun Tong. In the following three years, Shusun Tong treated Liu Bang with caution and did not recommend a Confucian scholar to Liu Bang. Instead, he recommended many valiant warriors who were good at charging into battle to Liu Bang. This puzzled the Confucian students who followed him, but little did they know that Shusun Tong was eagerly waiting for the opportunity.
Liu Bang started his life in plain clothes. After becoming emperor, many of the generals around him did not understand etiquette and drank alcohol in the court to compete for merit. Liu Bang was restless and helpless about this. This was the best opportunity for Shusun Tong, who clearly told Liu Bang that although Confucianism could not conquer the world in war, it could do its best for the long-term stability of the world. Liu Bang had not yet realized the role of Confucianism, but Shusun Tong wanted to establish worship rituals to regulate the words and actions of ministers. In Liu Bang’s view, it was like sending charcoal in the snow, and he immediately approved Shusun Tong’s plan. On the day of Li Cheng, the scene was grand and orderly. For the first time, Liu Bang deeply felt the dignity of being an emperor and the importance of ritual order. From then on, Liu Bang no longer regarded Confucianism and Confucianism as mere decorations, but gradually realized the practical value of Confucianism in political life. Confucianism thus occupied a place in the Han court and officially entered the court.
(Research Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: After the Qin and Han dynasties, due to the decline of etiquette and music, the social order became chaotic, and there was no set of behavioral norms for everyone. Emperor Gaozu of Han used his uncle and grandson to rectify this order in the court and established this ritual, which made him truly feel like an emperor.)
In 195 BC, when Liu Bang defeated the last powerful feudal lord with a different surname, Wang Yingbu, and brought his sick body to pay homage to Confucius, he seemed to have a vague feeling that only Confucianism was the most suitable governing ideology to ensure the long-term stability of the Han Dynasty. However, when he realized this, his life was about to reach its end, and less than half a year after the memorial service to the tomb of Confucius, Liu Bang passed away. At this time, Confucianism had not yet become the most respected Confucian classics, and even important classics were not easy to find. During the pre Qin period, Confucianism was only one of the hundred schools of thought among the various scholars, and its status was not prestigious. After the unification of China by the Qin Dynasty, the state system was established based on the theory of Legalism. Confucianism and other schools of thought were rejected, leading to the burning of books, burying Confucianism, and destroying folk collections of books. Those who had even spoken poetry and books in the folk were guilty of beheading. After Xiang Yu’s army entered Xianyang and burned down Qin’s palace, even the “Poetry”, “Book”, and “Hundred Schools of Thought” hidden by the doctoral officials were destroyed in the fire. When the Han Dynasty was first established, it was in a state of complete desolation and cultural desolation. (Director of the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Bu Xianqun: After burning books and burying Confucianism, of course, it had a certain impact on the dissemination of culture, especially Confucianism, but it cannot be said to have been completely cut off because this historical process was relatively short. For example, in the early Han Dynasty, some scholars who studied Confucianism during the pre Qin period were still there, and they could be preserved through oral transmission.)
The lacquer tablet of the Ruyin Hou Tomb in the Western Han Dynasty at the Fuyang Museum: It was made in a pit during the Western Han Dynasty, and each lacquer tablet has characters on it. This is the box for packaging simplicity
For many years, the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences has been engaged in an important task of searching for lost classics and ancient books both domestically and internationally. This is obviously not an easy task.
In the early Han Dynasty, the same thing was happening, and due to the influence of events such as burning books and burying Confucianism in the Qin Dynasty, searching for Confucian classics inevitably faced many difficulties. The Han Dynasty basically inherited the political system and system of the Qin Dynasty. During Liu Bang’s lifetime, he spent his days on expeditions to the east and west, and even the Qin Dynasty’s law prohibiting private book collection was not abolished. It was not until more than three years after his death that Emperor Hui of Han officially ordered the abolition of the law of blackmail. Six years later, Emperor Wen of Han abolished the crime of defamation and began to greatly embrace various schools of thought, encourage academic development, and collect a large number of classics and open up the path of book offerings. Except for the decline of Mohism in the late Qin Dynasty, various schools of thought such as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Yin Yang School, which were active on the political and cultural stage during the pre Qin period, coexisted in the early Han Dynasty. Especially after being suppressed by the Qin Dynasty, Confucianism was eager to revive and achieve its aspirations of relieving the common people and governing the country. However, there are very few scriptures that can be found in the vast world.
(Sun Xiao, Research Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: At that time, there were six classics, including “Shi”, “Shu”, “Li”, “Yi”, “Chun Qiu”, and “Yue Jing”. However, it was true that the “Yue Jing” could not be seen by the Han Dynasty, which is what we call the “Yue Jing” of music.)
The Book, also known as the Book of Documents, is the earliest compilation of historical documents in China, recording a history of over 1500 years from Yao, Shun, and Yu to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, carrying the words, deeds, and wisdom of the sages of the pre Qin period. In the Han Dynasty, the old Confucian classics left by Duke Zhou and Confucius evolved into the Six Classics, namely “Yi”, “Shu”, “Shi”, “Li”, “Le”, and “Spring and Autumn”. But in the early Han Dynasty, “Le” had completely disappeared, and even “Shu” was difficult to find.
In order to preserve Confucian classics, in the fourth year of the Xiping reign of the Eastern Han Dynasty (175 AD), the court ordered that officially approved scriptures be printed in the form of clerical script on forty-eight stone tablets as standard teaching materials for scholars. This is the Xiping Stone Sutra written by the famous Confucian scholar Cai Yong of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Each tablet is one zhang high and four zhang wide, standing on the east side of the Taixue Lecture Hall in Luoyang, the capital. The day the tablet was completed was unprecedentedly grand, and visitors and imitators filled the streets with over a thousand cars every day. However, after the vicissitudes and changes of time, some of the Xiping Stone Scriptures we see today are stored in the Xi’an Beilin Museum, while the other part is collected in the Shanghai Museum.
Liu Yiwen, a researcher at the Calligraphy and Painting Research Department of the Shanghai Museum: The font of the “Xi Ping Shi Jing” was written and carved neatly because it was used for propaganda at that time. The largest one was unearthed in 1922, also in Luoyang. After excavation, the largest “Book of Changes” was discovered, which has more than 940 characters.
Fusheng Shujing Tuming – Du Jin Metropolitan Museum of Art in the United States
This very precious work is the painting “Fu Sheng Teaches the Classics” by the Ming Dynasty painter Du Jin. Fu Sheng was a member of the various Confucian scholars in central Shandong, specializing in the “Book of Documents”. When Emperor Qin Shi Huang issued a burning order, he fearlessly hid a “Book of Documents” in the wall. This became the only “Book of Documents” in China during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han, and Fu Sheng also became the only Confucian scholar at that time who could speak the “Book of Documents”. The court immediately invited him to go to Beijing. However, Fusheng was already over ninety years old and could not go to the capital. Therefore, Emperor Wen of Han specifically sent the Taichang supervisor Chao Cuo to Fusheng’s place to receive employment. After studying the Book of Documents, Chao Cuo was appointed as a doctoral scholar by Emperor Wen of Han. At that time, there were more than 70 doctoral scholars in the Han Dynasty, including those in Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, and Yin Yang schools. Various theories wanted to become the mainstream of Han Dynasty thought, and there were many debates among them. In the early Han Dynasty, although Confucianism received a certain degree of attention, under the national conditions of long-term wars, barren land, economic decline, and intensified social contradictions, the Taoist concept of inaction was clearly more in line with the social conditions of that time, and thus held a dominant position.
(Research Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: During the Han Dynasty, Taoism was no longer completely like the pre Qin Taoism. It was a form of active and active behavior. Its manifestation was a form of active and active behavior, so it had to intervene in politics and society to a certain extent. Therefore, some scholars refer to Taoism after the Qin and Han dynasties as the New Taoism.)
Music and Dance Maid Xuzhou Museum
The famous rule of Wen and Jing in history may have emerged under the Taoist policy of governing by inaction. From Liu Bang until Emperor Jing of Han, rulers of the Han Dynasty advocated the concept of rest with the people, implementing the system of prefectures and counties in parallel with the system of enfeoffment in political policies, granting great autonomy to feudal states. In terms of economic policies, encourage agriculture and light corv é e taxes; In terms of social policies, we must adhere to suppressing the powerful and moralizing the people; In terms of foreign policy, we will strictly implement the policy of eliminating troops through friendly relations.
In the more than sixty years after the Chu Han War, the entire society was able to recover and gradually achieve national prosperity and people’s strength. According to historical records, by the late period of Emperor Jing of Han, the country’s granaries were abundant, and new millet was piled up all the way to the outside of the granary. The large amount of copper coins in the treasury had not been used for many years, to the point where the ropes used to wear the coins were rotten, and there was too much loose money to calculate. With such rich achievements, the position of Taoist thought in the country became even more prominent.
(Researcher at the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Yang Zhenhong: In the early Han Dynasty, the governance of Huang Lao was to rest and allow the people to resume their production and life, because they achieved very good results in doing so. At that time, the people were able to live and work in peace and contentment.)
In the prosperous era of literature and scenery, there are profound social contradictions hidden, especially the corruption of social norms, which worries knowledgeable people greatly. Jia Yi wrote in his “Public Security Policy” that Qin wanted to unify the world, implement the Shang Yang Reform, and abandon etiquette and benevolence. Although Qin achieved great success, he advocated for utilitarianism. Although it is now the Han Dynasty, the customs left by the Qin Dynasty have not changed. People pursue luxury and compete with each other, but the court does not customize it, resulting in people abandoning etiquette, lacking integrity, and becoming more and more serious day by day. People only do things for profit. In response to this phenomenon, Jia Yi hoped that Emperor Wen of Han could attach importance to etiquette education, but Emperor Wen only partially adopted his opinions and still implemented the overall policy of Taoist inaction. The talented Jia Yi was strongly resisted by powerful officials such as Prime Minister Zhou Bo and Lieutenant Guan Ying, and was quickly excluded from the local area, resulting in his premature death.
(Director of the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Bu Xianqun: Emperor Wen of Han did not fully adopt Jia Yi’s suggestions, but it does not mean that he did not absorb any of his suggestions. He dismantled the feudal lords of Huainan and Qi, but he did not completely abolish them. This was determined by the situation at that time, which means that the conditions for immediate abolition of feudal lords were not yet available.)
Taoist thought is also highly respected by various feudal lords and kings, among whom Liu An, the King of Huainan, organized the writing of “Huainanzi”, which includes many schools of thought, but mainly focuses on Taoist thought. He hopes that the Han court will always adopt a policy of governing by inaction, so that the feudal lords and parliament have greater freedom. This political pattern not only deprives the government of a large number of taxpayers and severely erodes the country’s finances, but also makes the feudal kingdoms gradually stronger and more inclined towards independence. It also poses a constant threat of division to the centralized unified empire.
During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, Chao Cuo, who had studied the “Book of Documents” at Fusheng, had become an imperial censor. He was strongly aware of the threat posed by the feudal states to the central government and made clear proposals to reduce the fiefdoms, which was supported by Emperor Jing of Han. Unexpectedly, this triggered the Rebellion of the Seven Kingdoms of Wu and Chu. Although the Rebellion was quickly quelled, the conflict between the Han Dynasty and the vassal states remained sharp. The positive and unified ideas advocated by Confucianism have also engaged in a fierce confrontation with the conservative ideas of Taoism, which advocates governing by inaction and following the old ways.
(Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: During the reign of Emperor Wen, society did indeed become very wealthy and the lives of the people improved. However, social problems also emerged. It seems that there is no way to solve these new social problems combined with old methods, such as resting with the people. Therefore, a new way of thinking and some new methods are needed.)
This is Yuangu Village, Tianzhuang Town, Huantai County, Shandong Province, the hometown of Yuan Gusheng, a Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty. In commemoration of his restoration of the Five Sages Temple, later generations erected statues. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, Yuan Gusheng was appointed as a doctoral student for studying the Book of Songs. His Confucianism was incompatible with the conservative ideas of Taoism at that time. The most typical example is his debate with Huang Sheng of Taoism in front of Emperor Jing. They both used Shang Tang and King Wu of Zhou as examples to explain their political views. The theme of this debate may seem to be historical events from previous dynasties, but in reality, their attitude directly points to the current political reality at that time. (Researcher at the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: Huang Sheng said that this society cannot change anymore and cannot be reformed. However, Yuan Gusheng believed that this society must be reformed, and the two of them had an argument. In the end, they used a hat and shoes as a metaphor to pull out the Tang Wu Revolution.)
By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, under the guidance of the ideology of governing by inaction, there had been several crises in imperial politics, and the accumulated social contradictions had become an explosive trend. This forced the Han Dynasty to reflect on its previous concept of governing the country and take corresponding positive measures to cope with the crisis. Gradually breaking away from the Huang Lao doctrine and shifting towards a positive and promising Confucianism in governing ideology became an inevitable choice for the rulers of the Han Dynasty.
In 140 BC, Emperor Wu of Han adopted a memorial from Prime Minister Wei Wan, stating that anyone who studied the theories of Shen Buhuo, Shang Yang, Han Fei, Su Qin, and Zhang Yi could not be elected as an official. This meant that the ideas of Legalism and Zongheng were abandoned.
In 136 BC, Emperor Wu of Han ordered the establishment of scholars in the Five Classics of Poetry, Book, Rites, Book of Changes, and Spring and Autumn Annals, making the various Confucian classics more complete in the government. One year later, Empress Dowager Dou passed away, and Emperor Wu of Han was able to heavily utilize Confucian scholars. However, in the face of various drawbacks and ideological confusion that already existed in society, relying solely on etiquette and fragmented thinking could no longer solve the problem. Emperor Wu of Han urgently needed a complete and systematic theory of governing the country and pacifying the world. He needed to closely link this with his own governance in order to formulate comprehensive national policies. Who in the world has the ability to provide such a systematic concept? (Associate Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Song Yanping: Emperor Wu of Han was a talented and strategic emperor, and he advocated for active progress. He was dissatisfied with governing by inaction because Confucianism had great unity and the idea of divine authority was more conducive to Emperor Wu’s strengthening of centralization.)
There is a thousand year old tradition in Dadongguzhuang Village, Jingxian County, Hebei Province. Every time children reach the age of school, they will come to the Dongzi Temple at the village head to worship. In this way, the people pray that their children and grandchildren can read poetry and make contributions to society like their ancestors, Dongzi.
Dongzi’s Hometown, Dadongguzhuang Village, Jing County, Hebei Province
Where is Dong Zi’s hometown, also known as Dong Zhongshu, the great Confucian scholar of the Western Han Dynasty? There have been many controversies throughout history, but people’s reverence for Dong Zi has not changed for thousands of years.
“The Records of the Grand Historian records that Dong Zhongshu, a native of Guangchuan, was appointed as a doctor during the reign of filial piety in the Spring and Autumn Annals.”
Dong Zhongshu once became angry and closed his door to study. His study was adjacent to a colorful garden, but due to his diligent research, there was a beautiful tale of not visiting the garden for three years. Based on “The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Gongyang”, Dong Zhongshu combined the religious views of the Heavenly Dao, Yin Yang, and Five Elements since the Zhou Dynasty, and established a new ideological system by absorbing the thoughts of Legalism, Taoism, and Yin Yang. Dong Zhongshu was the founder of Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Confucianism transformed into Confucianism and became the official governing philosophy of the Han Dynasty, becoming the dominant ideology in ancient Chinese society for over two thousand years. It has also become the content and direction of today’s major research institutions and scholars exploring Confucianism.
(Du Weiming, Dean of the Institute of Advanced Humanities at Peking University: From Dong Zhongshu’s perspective, especially in the revision of “The Spring and Autumn Annals of the Gongyang”, there is a subtle and profound intention to change the world and create a new civilized order for the world. That is to say, it comes from his understanding of the value and significance of human nature and life, as well as the long-term and sustainable harmony of society. He has a comprehensive understanding that emphasizes the rule of virtue, but also adds punishment to it, which is the rule of law and the rule of virtue. The rule of law is the most basic, but the rule of law itself cannot create morality, and it must also have the rule of virtue.)
Professor Du Weiming discussed in his works how Emperor Wu of Han adopted Confucianism as the official doctrine and provided a detailed analysis of Dong Zhongshu’s thoughts.
In 134 BC, Emperor Wu of Han, who was able to make complete decisions, urgently issued an edict to seek the essence of the Tao and the ultimate principles of governance. Dong Zhongshu immediately responded with a virtuous and virtuous strategy. Emperor Wu of Han repeatedly asked three strategies, consulting the fundamental principles of consolidating rule, governing the country’s politics, and the issue of the interaction between heaven and man. Dong Zhongshu then answered three chapters, pointing directly to the core issues of society at that time and proposing fundamental solutions. This is a famous three strategy and three answers in Chinese history, known as the “Three Strategies of Heaven and Man” or the “Strategies for Promoting Virtue and Virtue”, which will completely change the fate of Confucianism.
Dean of the Institute of Higher Humanities at Peking University – Du Weiming: Like Dong Zhongshu at that time, strategy was to ask questions, and if the emperor had problems, problems were major issues in the world. Now we are facing big problems, such as talent cultivation, safety, development, and even the relationship between humans and nature. These big problems, and countermeasures, will respond to you. Therefore, it is important to understand what he means by heaven? It has a profound connotation, and the connotation is the profound meaning of morality. Heaven has the virtue of good life, and when it comes to the common people, I want to share the same lineage with the old tradition of self perception, self perception, and self perception.
The most important suggestion put forward by Dong Zhongshu in the “Three Strategies for Heaven and Man” is that those who are not in the subject of the Six Arts and the techniques of Confucius should all cut off their own paths and not use them to advance simultaneously. The Six Arts are the six essential talents for scholars. He emphasized the need to use Confucius’ Confucianism to unify the thinking of the world. After Emperor Wu of Han listened to it, he dismissed all the Taichang PhDs who were not in control of Confucianism in the “Five Classics” and invited hundreds of Confucian students with preferential treatment. This is the profound influence on ancient Chinese culture and thought, which is to depose the Hundred Schools of Thought and respect Confucianism alone.
Du Weiming, Dean of the Institute of Higher Humanities at Peking University: Dong Zhongshu means that if Emperor Wu of Han really wants to be more refined and reformed, then you need to have a very comprehensive and integrated ideology. Confucianism can provide this ideology for you, so you need to cultivate a group of talents, which means it is recommended that the power of this emperor promote Confucianism.
Dong Zhongshu also proposed for the first time the idea of establishing the Imperial Academy to educate the country, which is to cultivate talents who receive Confucian classics education through national education, so as to better practice the political theories advocated by the classics. Taixue was an ancient Chinese university, named after the Western Zhou Dynasty. However, its true flourishing as an official school began with Emperor Wu of Han, and it was from this that schools of different ages began to adapt and develop rapidly throughout the country. The sound of reciting Confucian classics and reading aloud has been heard from various schools for two thousand years from ancient times to the present.
The Han Dynasty designated the Five Classics of Yi, Shi, Shu, Li, and Spring and Autumn as official schools, and passed on the teachings of the Five Classics, becoming the most orthodox Confucian classics and the political governance theory of the Han Dynasty. By the end of the Western Han Dynasty, the number of scholars studying the Five Classics gradually increased to fourteen, hence it is also known as the Fourteen Doctorates of the Five Classics.
Du Weiming, Dean of the Institute of Higher Humanities at Peking University: Confucianism has its own way, its own learning, and its own politics. Among its academic traditions, the study of the classics is its core, especially since Dong Zhongshu’s “Gongyang Chunqiu” which is also a practical philosophy. So if you don’t understand the Confucian classics, don’t read the Great Learning, don’t read the Doctrine of the Mean, don’t read the Four Books, don’t read the Five Classics, then the core value of Confucianism is its entire humanities. It is a comprehensive set of humanistic ideas that cannot enter its core.
There was a Confucian scholar named Gongsun Hong, who was also highly valued by Emperor Wu of Han during the same period as Dong Zhongshu. Although Gongsun Hong was an intellectual at the bottom of society, he was unexpectedly promoted and became the first Confucian scholar in Chinese history to be appointed as a prime minister. Gongsun Hong’s talent is known for its practicality, and his political ideology has a clear tendency towards the convergence of Confucianism and Legalism, believing that the law is not far from righteousness and harmony is not far from propriety. He put Dong Zhongshu’s suggestion into practice and suggested to Emperor Wu of Han to establish a school system, using Confucian classics as the unified teaching material for imperial education, offering examinations on classics and arts, and providing talents for officials at all levels of departments. This linked the study of classics with the study of profit and fortune, laying a solid foundation for the development of classics.
Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: Gong Sun Honggong was indispensable, and Confucianism became a political theory with dominant ideological significance in the Han Dynasty. Of course, he must cultivate his own talents. From the Han Dynasty court, we can see that there were five classics doctors, and each doctor had to recruit many disciples.
In the Han Dynasty, the inheritance of Confucianism was highly valued, with strict sects and orderly inheritance. In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, the great scholars who taught the Five Classics included Shen Peigong, Yuan Gusheng, and Han Ying, who taught the Book of Songs; Fu Sheng, who passed down the Book of Documents; A high school student who teaches the Book of Rites; Tian He, who passed down the Book of Changes; Hu Wusheng, Dong Zhongshu, Shen Peigong, and others who passed down the Spring and Autumn Annals. Dong Zhongshu, on the other hand, was a master of Gongyang studies in the Spring and Autumn Annals. Undoubtedly, he was the most influential master of Confucian classics, teaching the Gongyang Spring and Autumn Annals. During the Han Dynasty, most of the scripture masters specialized in one scripture throughout their lives, known as the Haoshouqiujing.
This persistent spirit and humble attitude are also the reasons why future generations refer to Sinology as Pu Xue. In the Western Han Dynasty, most of the Confucian scholars were appointed as officials by commoners. However, in the Eastern Han Dynasty, after several generations, these commoners became aristocratic families, and the study of Confucian classics was monopolized by a classic family that had been in power for many generations. These families not only hold power politically and become wealthy economically, but also have the voice of ruling ideology and social morality. Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, gained the status of sage and vegetarian king, and was described as a deity in the heavenly court. Sacrificing Confucius also became an important activity.
The study of classics has also become a Confucian school that embodies divination and divination. As theological prophecies, there is not much difference between divination and divination. In the Han Dynasty, the status of Confucian classics increased, and the use of divination and divination to interpret scriptures gave rise to the Wei Shu, which relied on and attached to the meaning of scriptures. This opened the door to the mystification and vulgarization of Confucian classics.
(Researcher at the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: For example, the “Spring and Autumn Annals” have the “Spring and Autumn Annals” latitude; the “Book” has the “Book of Documents” latitude; the “Book of Rites” has a variety of “Book of Rites” latitude books, so the content of this latitude book is mostly unrestrained, with many mythological colors. It preserves some content of primitive Chinese mythology and ancient mythology. We can see that Confucius recorded in the scriptures is very serious and solemn, but in the latitude book, Confucius may stand on the Heavenly Gate holding a sword and stepping on auspicious clouds, which is the difference between the latitude book and the scriptures.)
However, the most important characteristic of the Confucian classics of the two Han dynasties was their integration and absorption of the strengths of various schools of thought to enrich their studies, and their commitment to the governance of the dynasties. Especially after Emperor Wu deposed the Hundred Schools of thought, the Confucian scholars’ expertise in utilizing the classics was further developed. Scholars in the classics transformed pre Qin Confucianism with the theory of yin, yang, and five elements, creating the theory of yin, yang, disasters, and anomalies to limit imperial power and regulate imperial behavior. They believed that the emperor’s behavior was in line with the Heavenly Way, and that auspicious omens would appear and be praised. If it did not comply with the Heavenly Way, disasters and anomalies would appear and serve as a warning.
In the later years of Emperor Wu’s reign, disasters occurred frequently. An edict was issued by Emperor Wu to reply to the matter of land reclamation in Luntai, which contained many contents of self reflection. This was also the first fully preserved imperial self reflection edict in Chinese history – the self blame edict.
(Du Weiming, Dean of the Institute of Advanced Humanities at Peking University: Confucianism has its critical spirit, which requires a feedback system for the politics it constructs. The relationship between heaven and man is the most difficult to understand and the final feedback system. If your entire political situation cannot enter the normal track and you will be punished by heaven on that day, it will warn you first, and there will be disasters first. If you continue to not receive warnings, your destiny will be lost.)
The emperor, as the special title of the emperor, was a creation of Confucian scholars at this time. The theory of “Great Unification” during the Spring and Autumn period was actually a creation of Confucian scholars during the Han Dynasty, who derived the concept from the Confucian classic “Spring and Autumn”. “Da” means valuing and respecting, while “Yi Tong” means that all the feudal lords in the world are united under the emperor. As stated in the “Biography of Wang Ji” in the Book of Han, “Spring and Autumn Annals” means that “Da Tong” refers to the six contractual styles and the nine provinces being interconnected. This political ethics centered on orthodoxy strengthens the power of centralization, and has had a huge and profound impact on Chinese and East Asian societies for over two thousand years.
(Researcher at the Institute of History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: Emperor Gaozu of Han conferred titles on his meritorious officials and his descendants as feudal lords. Similarly, he also divided many prefectures and counties, which were directly governed by the central government. In parallel, when these feudal lords became powerful, they had an impulse or demand to break away from centralization. This indicates that at that time, society was not very unified. Therefore, Dong Zhongshu’s concept of “great unity” integrated the political order of the entire society, and he provided his own theoretical support.)
After Dong Zhongshu proposed the policy of governing the country with benevolence, virtue, propriety, and righteousness as the main principles and punishment as the auxiliary, Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty created another important theory, the Three Cardinals and Five Constants. The so-called Three Principles refer to the principles of the ruler as the minister, the father as the son, and the husband as the wife. The Five Constants refer to benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith. Although the combination of the Three Principles and Five Constants originated from Zhu Xi of the Song Dynasty, the discussion of these concepts in Han Confucianism is already very clear. The Three Principles and Five Constants are social ethics centered on regulating order, and have deeply influenced the cultural psychology of the Chinese people for over two thousand years.
Du Weiming, Dean of the Institute of Advanced Humanities at Peking University: The three principles proposed by Dong Zhongshu are mandatory, which is to maintain order and stability. This idea is influenced by Legalism. So in order to maintain an order, it requires a concept of a program. I believe that when reflecting on Confucianism in modern times, the relationship between superiors and subordinates, the relationship between father and son, and the relationship between husband and wife are all core relationships, all of which are guidelines. The White Tiger Tongyi established the Three Principles as the fundamental principles of this country, which have been recognized by scholars such as Chen Yinke and Wang Guowei as the core values of China since the Song and Ming dynasties, including today.
The Three Principles and Five Constants, which have lasted for more than two thousand years, have internalized the thinking and behavioral norms of the Chinese people. Confucian scholars who are gentle, courteous, and courteous have become models of practicing the Three Principles and Five Constants. This is not only reflected in their moral behavior, but also in people’s life orientation, clothing, food, housing, and transportation. It is obvious that Confucians are diligent and frugal, and the Confucian attire that best represents their identity is almost never made of silk or satin, while linen and cotton can better demonstrate their humility, richness, and indifference to fame and fortune. The Confucian demeanor has always been a personality inclination highly respected by ancient Chinese literati and scholars. (Zhou Yingzhi, founder of Shili Spring and Autumn Hanfu: A cultured person who walks into a group of people without cultural cultivation will soon win respect because our nation has always had a sense of respect for cultured people, but at the same time, where does this respect come from? It comes from our bones, respect for truth, respect for profound thoughts.)
Although Confucianism flourished after Emperor Wu, it was not always smooth sailing. The study of Confucian classics in the Han Dynasty can be divided into the study of modern classics and the study of ancient classics. Modern classics generally refer to Confucian classics written in the official script of the Han Dynasty and classified as official schools. Starting from the end of the Western Han Dynasty, modern classics faced challenges from the study of ancient classics. The ancient scriptures refer to Confucian scriptures that have not been established in central official schools, are hidden in royal secret rooms, or have been passed down among the people. They suppress the worship of Confucius by worshipping Zhou Gong, which to some extent has stopped the trend of sanctifying modern scriptures. By the late Eastern Han Dynasty, the study of modern classics and ancient classics were in a parallel state. At the same time, knowledgeable individuals began to no longer entangle themselves in debates, but to simultaneously govern modern and ancient texts and classics, seeking development through integration.
In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, a master of Confucian classics emerged, who was Zheng Xuan. He sought to integrate modern and ancient texts, and extensively annotated Confucian classics, ushering in a small unified era of Confucian studies. Obviously, although Confucianism originated from Confucianism, the multiplicity of its cultural origins seems to be in line with the principles of the Book of Changes, which states that the world is unified but full of considerations, and the same path leads to different paths. The Confucian classics have incorporated moral concepts from Taoist theory, and the Tao has been socialized and applied, transforming non action into non action and resting with the people into active progress; The study of Confucianism borrowed the state theory of Legalism, filling its own lack of understanding of monarchy authority and state system; The theories of Tiande, Tianyi, Xiaokang, and Datong drawn from the Mohist school in Confucianism are used to defend the rationality of imperial power and serve as a setting for an ideal society. Today, some theories in Confucianism still have their unique influence.
Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences – Sun Xiao: There is a difference between Confucianism and Confucianism. Confucianism was originally a social theory that was consistent with the Hundred Schools of Thought. However, after it was adopted by the Han Dynasty government, it became a political theory and a discipline of governing the world and the country. This is an evolution of Confucianism towards Confucianism. Confucianism is not simply copying some traditional Confucianism, but absorbing some of the advantages of the Hundred Schools of Thought. The content of Confucianism is more abundant than Confucianism.
The father of the great historian of the Han Dynasty, Sima Qian, Sima Tan, was also a historian. He once criticized Confucianism for being too broad and too few. Perhaps Sima Tan was wrong, as he pointed out the shortcomings of Confucianism as its strengths. The erudition of Confucianism allows it to absorb the strengths of various schools like a sponge, lacking key points. This way, Confucianism will not be complacent and conservative, but can keep up with the times and carry forward. It is precisely because of this that in ancient Chinese society for more than two thousand years, the influence of Confucianism is incomparable to other theories. Although Confucianism, which has gained a dominant position, has a tendency towards sanctification and vulgarization, as well as a moral compulsion similar to that of the heart, its strong concern for reality, practical characteristics, and self-criticism spirit demonstrate the essence of its academic school and play a positive role in the development of Chinese society.
Today we are worshipping Confucius at the Confucian Temple, and our feelings are different from those of us in other religious places. The clay statue sculpted by the scholars in front of us is very friendly and familiar, like a family member, as if engaging in a cultural dialogue with him. Anyway, like other sages, this ancestor is still nourishing our culture, inspiring our wisdom, and regulating our behavior.
90 Seconds of History: The Disaster of Witch and Gu
In 91 BC, a major event that shook the court and the public occurred within the ruling center of the Han Dynasty – the disaster of witchcraft and witchcraft. Jiang Chongsu had a disagreement with Crown Prince Liu Ju and slandered Emperor Wu of Han, saying that someone in the palace used witchcraft to curse Emperor Wu of Han. Emperor Wu was furious and ordered him to thoroughly investigate. Witchcraft and witchcraft is a type of witchcraft used by wizards to curse, shoot puppets, and poison insects in an attempt to harm their enemies. This was very popular during the Western Han Dynasty, and Emperor Wu of Han firmly believed in it. This provided an opportunity for conspirators to stir up trouble. The Crown Prince was very afraid. He was unwilling to be wrongly accused and died, so he arrested and killed Jiang Chong to protect himself. Upon hearing this news, Emperor Wu of Han was furious and sent the Prime Minister to lead a large army to suppress the rebellion. After five days of fierce fighting, the Crown Prince was defeated and fled Chang’an, ultimately committing suicide. The calamity of witchcraft and witchcraft occurred in the ruling center of the Han Dynasty, involving and killing tens of thousands of people, affecting and shaking the foundation of the Han Empire.