In 770 BC, King Ping of Zhou moved from Haojing to the eastern capital of Luoyang, which is now Luoyang, Henan Province. This is an important watershed in Chinese history. From the Western Zhou Dynasty to the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the millet and millet were separated, the ears of the millet were harvested, and the walking was leisurely and intoxicating. Those who knew me called me worried, and those who didn’t know me called me what I wanted. The leisurely sky and this person were like. After the Zhou family moved eastward, the Eastern Zhou literati passed by the former capital of Zongzhou and saw that the grand ancestral temples and palaces had turned into farmland. They felt sad and felt like they were separated from each other. At this time, the Zhou royal family had already… Weakened to the extreme, the scope of governance sharply narrowed, and the Zhou royal family left behind the false name of co ruler of the world. The first period of great division in Chinese history came immediately. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, the period from the eastward migration of King Ping in 770 BC to the first year of King Yuan of Zhou in 476 BC lasted for 294 years, known as the Spring and Autumn Period.
The autumn Wangcheng Park no longer has the bustling crowds of peonies in full bloom, with fallen leaves falling on the land of the towering Wangcheng thousands of years ago. Over 2600 years ago, this was the Wangcheng of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. But outside the royal city, there were raging wolves and smoke everywhere. The Zhou emperor had long lost his power and authority, and he controlled the feudal lords from a high position. In the early Spring and Autumn period, more than 140 feudal lords of all sizes were recorded in historical records, and they competed and engaged in constant melee.
The future ruler of Qi, Qi Huan Gong – Qi Gongzi Xiaobai, walked with great strides. Qi Huan Gong was a renowned hegemon in Chinese history. However, before he ascended to the throne, this Gongzi Xiaobai’s situation was extremely difficult. During the reign of Prince Xiaobai, his elder brother Qi Xianggong indiscriminately killed innocent people, and his younger brothers had to go out for refuge. Qi Xianggong was ultimately killed, and the state of Qi had no ruler. People eagerly awaited a legitimate new ruler. There are two suitable candidates who are expected to ascend the throne. They are both the younger brothers of Duke Xiang of Qi. One is Gongzi Jiu, who is seeking refuge in Lu, and the other is Gongzi Xiaobai, who is avoiding difficulties in Ju.
This is a mountain road from Rizhao to Zibo, and it was also a necessary route for the young master Xiaobai from Ju State to Qi State. Over 2600 years ago, for Qi State, this was a road related to national prosperity. On the other side of the road, the throne of the capital of Qi is empty. Young Master Xiaobai and Young Master Jue, who can return to Qi first, can seize the opportunity and become the new ruler. Obviously, Gongzi Jue has obvious advantages. In order to ensure that Gongzi Jue inherits the throne smoothly, the State of Lu also dispatched Guan Zhong, who assisted Gongzi Jue, to lead troops to intercept and kill Gongzi Xiaobai.
The young master Xiaobai and his entourage hurriedly arrived near Jimo. Guan Zhong, who had already been ambushed here, arched his bow and set an arrow. When he shot the young master Xiaobai, he shouted loudly and fell into the car. Guan Zhong thought that Xiaobai had died and sent someone back to the state of Lu to report his victory. But he didn’t expect that his arrow only hit the hook on Young Master Xiaobai’s clothes. Young Master Xiaobai survived the disaster and even though he had narrowly escaped death, he continued to travel day and night. In the end, Young Master Xiaobai rushed back to the state of Qi early.
In 685 BC, Gongzi Xiaobai ascended the throne and became Duke Huan of Qi. Duke Huan of Qi, who had the initiative and voice, sent a letter to the people of Lu saying, “Zi Jue is a brother, and I cannot bear to kill him myself. Please ask the ruler of Lu to kill him.”. Guan Zhong is my enemy, and I can only be content with him by personally chopping him into meat sauce. As the idiom goes, a one shot revenge arises from this. Under the coercion of Duke Huan of Qi, the state of Lu killed Prince Jue and imprisoned Guan Zhong, who was then transported to the state of Qi. Almost everyone believed that Guan Zhong, who had a grudge against Duke Huan of Qi, would inevitably face severe retaliation and even die without a place to bury himself. Duke Huan of Qi had a grand plan and was eager to change the chaos of the state of Qi. He put aside the grudges of one arrow and not only did not kill Guan Zhong, but also worshipped him as his prime minister. Thus, a timeless tale of a heroic lord and a wise minister who shared the power of the Spring and Autumn period was born.
Guanzhong Memorial Hall, Zibo City, Shandong Province
This is the Guanzhong Memorial Hall located in Zibo City, Shandong Province. The plaque that unifies the world hangs high at the main entrance, and the power of the feudal lords during the Spring and Autumn period is reflected on the back of the paper.
(Wang Yanping, Director of the Guanzhong Memorial Hall in Linzi, Zibo City: Duke Huan of Qi joined forces with the feudal lords to unify the world, and Guan Zhong’s power was not limited to military vehicles, which shows that Guan Zhong played a decisive role inside.)
Commissioned by Duke Huan of Qi, Guan Zhong began a comprehensive reform of the state of Qi, planning political affairs, centralizing power, rewarding families and merchants, enriching national wealth, revitalizing military equipment, and strengthening the military. As a result, the state of Qi underwent a new transformation.
(Shao Bei, Associate Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: I think Guan Zhong’s importance is reflected in his role as a maker of Qi’s strategy for hegemony. An internal policy mainly involves ensuring that the four people, including scholars, peasants, workers, and merchants, have their own safety and responsibilities, which is passed down from generation to generation and is not easy to cause chaos. Secondly, he calls for sending military orders to internal affairs. He can cultivate and engage in his own affairs in peacetime, and gather in times of war, which is equivalent to enriching the country and strengthening the military, and stabilizing internal affairs.)
At a time when the monarchy of the Zhou dynasty was weak and powerless, the national strength of the state of Qi rapidly increased, and the ambition of Duke Huan of Qi gradually emerged with the strength of the country. He was waiting for an excellent opportunity to become the co ruler of the world. This is a section of the Yan Great Wall built during the late Warring States period, which was also the earliest Great Wall built by the Yan state to resist the mountain bandits. Prior to this, the northern mountain bandits could drive straight in and invade southward. Rong Di lived in the northwest and was mostly nomadic. In the eyes of the Zhou royal family and the feudal lords of the Central Plains, they have always belonged to backward and remote tribes. In fact, the eastward migration of Prince Ping was also forced by the invasion of the Rong and Di tribes. In the past, the royal land was completely destroyed, and the Central Plains countries were trampled upon by the iron cavalry of the Rong and Di tribes. The troubles of the Rong and Di tribes have become increasingly severe.
In 663 BC, under the strong attack of the Shanrong tribe in the north, the Yan state was unable to resist. Faced with the danger of being destroyed, Guan Zhong offered advice to Duke Huan of Qi, Rong Di Cai Lang, who could not be disliked, and the Xia people were affectionate and could not be abandoned. In the situation where the Central Plains countries were troubled by the calamity of the Rong and Di tribes at that time, Duke Huan of Qi raised a banner to suppress the barbarians, and at the same time, he repaired rituals to the feudal lords, paying tribute to the Zhou royal family, and embarked on the path of achieving hegemonic status through respecting the king and suppressing the barbarians.
(Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: The Zhou royal family has gone from prosperity to decline, and its control over the entire feudal lords has weakened, forming a phenomenon of power vacuum. Duke Huan of Qi proposed a very good idea at that time, which was to use the political influence of the Zhou royal family to control the feudal lords. I would definitely go and help it, so that I would also establish a credibility among the entire feudal lords.).
Duke Huan of Qi personally led his army northward to save the state of Yan. The Qi army rushed at lightning speed and defeated the Shanrong. Yan not only avoided the humiliation of its downfall, but also increased its territory by 500 miles. Duke Yan Zhuang, the ruler of Yan, who had restored stability to the country, was extremely grateful for the assistance provided by Qi. He personally sent Duke Huan of Qi back to his home country, but unknowingly entered the Qi territory. According to the Zhou ritual, the feudal lords sent each other across the border, and crossing the border was a ritual that only the Zhou emperor could enjoy. At this time, Duke Huan of Qi generously said that except for the emperor, the feudal lords could not send each other out of the country. I should not be impolite to Yan and even ceded all the Qi territory that was fifty miles away from the Yan Zhuang Mansion to Yan. He repeatedly instructed Duke Yan Zhuang to respect the etiquette, support the Zhou family, and send troops to rescue them in front, and later on. Fengou Li Yan, the lords of various countries heard of the great virtue of Duke Huan of Qi and were all delighted and convinced.
In a series of international events, Duke Huan of Qi’s prestige has been increasing, and he will also shoulder greater responsibilities and face greater challenges. When the Rong and Di forces were effectively restrained, another even more powerful force was forming in the southern part of the Central Plains, which was the Chu State. When the Qi State rose up, the Chu State had already destroyed states such as Xi and Deng, and they unconsciously corresponded with the northern Rong and Di forces, forming a situation where the Southern Barbarians and the Northern Barbarians intersected, and China was constantly like a line. Faced with the aggressive attack of the State of Chu, various feudal states in the Central Plains rushed to rescue the State of Qi. While constantly achieving victories in the campaign against Rong and Di, Duke Huan of Qi finally made up his mind to face the army of the State of Chu in the south. In 656 BC, Duke Huan of Qi personally led a coalition army of feudal lords such as Lu, Song, Chen, and Wei to set up camp in Xingshan, the northern gateway of Chu. Under the pressure of a large army, the fearless state of Chu felt pressure and sent envoys to negotiate with Qi. The envoy of the State of Chu said to Duke Huan of Qi, “You are in the North Sea, and I am in the South Sea. Only the winds, horses, and oxen are not in contact. Now that you are leading an army to attack the State of Chu, what is the reason for this?”? The Prime Minister of Qi, Guan Zhong, said to the envoy of Chu, “If you do not pay tribute to the royal family’s Bao Mao, it will result in the emperor’s sacrifice lacking the necessary materials and unable to dampen the spirit of wine.” I have come to question you for this. Guan Zhong refuted Chu’s disrespect for ritual and bulk, and his failure to fulfill his duties. Qi, with the authorization of the emperor, can punish the feudal lords who violate the ritual on behalf of the emperor. The Zhou ritual was the hierarchical system and ceremonial regulations of the Zhou Dynasty, serving as a tool for the Zhou royal family to adjust the relationship between the central and local governments, as well as between the princes and subjects, and strengthen their rule.
Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: As a service system, it actually means that these systems are closely related to the entire political system of the Zhou royal family. For example, in your vassal states and important officials, you need to obtain the approval of the Zhou royal family. At the same time, especially in the military, you have to bear a lot of obligations. You have to guard the border, and at the same time, I have to go out to war. I can freely recruit your army. Similarly, in terms of economy, we say you need to pay a certain amount of taxes. Of course, there were various ways of tribute at that time, whether it was Chu or not. Whether it’s other small countries or not, you have to bear these obligations
Under the heavy pressure of Qi and the great righteousness of respecting the Zhou royal family, Duke Huan of Qi ultimately surrendered without fighting. Chu bowed his head and admitted his mistake, and according to the Zhou ritual, paid tribute to the Zhou royal family with the thatched grass used for worship. Both sides established the alliance of Zhaoling, which effectively curbed Chu’s ambition to covet the Central Plains. While stabilizing the feudal lords, Duke Huan of Qi also devoted himself to supporting the royal family. It was believed that King Hui of Zhou, who favored his young son, had the intention of deposing the crown prince. Duke Huan of Qi convened a meeting of feudal lords and presented the crown prince Zheng with a memorial. He ascended the throne as King Xiang of Zhou, and by this time Duke Huan of Qi had gained recognition from both the Zhou royal family and the feudal lords. He had become the hegemon in everyone’s hearts.
Kuiqiu Temple, Minquan County, Henan Province
This is a temple located in Minquan County, Henan Province, China. It is called Kuiqiu Temple. In 651 BC, the state of Qi, along with the states of Lu, Song, Wei, Zheng, Xu, and Cao, held an alliance in Kuiqiu. This was the first time during the Spring and Autumn period that more than four feudal states participated in a feudal alliance. King Xiang of Zhou also sent people to participate, indicating that the Zhou royal family had publicly recognized Duke Huan of Qi as the actual ruler of the world, and Duke Huan of Qi became the first hegemon in the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, the hegemonic politics of the Spring and Autumn period began to emerge on the historical stage. Kuiqiu formed an alliance and established a treaty, maintaining the patriarchal system centered on the legitimate eldest son inheritance system, striving to ensure the stability of all levels of patriarchal hierarchy and the entire patriarchal system, reaffirming the political ideology of respecting virtue and valuing virtue that was repeatedly emphasized during the Western Zhou period, and demanding mutual support among the Central Plains.
(Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: The Kuiqiu Alliance is a symbol that marks the peak of Duke Huan of Qi’s entire hegemony. It has achieved results in the formulation of some game rules. The main purpose of this game rule is to solve internal conflicts, eliminate internal conflicts, and maintain the normal order preserved by the Zhou royal family. Therefore, the rules formulated by the Kuiqiu Alliance played a significant role in stabilizing the social order of that time for a short period of time.).
Duke Huan of Qi united with the feudal lords three times to send troops, convened alliances six times to unite the nine feudal lords, and resolutely upheld the patriarchal system in the issue of succession to the throne, in order to unify the world. However, Duke Huan of Qi ultimately did not have the strength to annex the world, and he must continue to follow the call of respecting the king and strictly abide by etiquette. During the Kuiqiu alliance, King Xiang of Zhou sent the Grand Tutor Ji Kong to deliver the sacrificial meat of the royal family to Duke Huan of Qi for the worship of King Wen and King Wu of Zhou. At the same time, he brought a message to Duke Huan of Qi, saying, “Uncle is old and has made great contributions, so let’s not bow down and receive the etiquette.” Duke Huan of Qi replied, “The power of heaven cannot be violated. If I do not bow down, it may only be disrespectful to the emperor and disrespectful to the emperor, which would make him ashamed. How dare I not bow down?” After speaking, Duke Huan of Qi knelt down according to the etiquette and then ascended the stairs to accept the sacrificial meat. Although he still needed to bow down to the Zhou royal family, Duke Huan of Qi had already secured his position as the first hegemon of the Spring and Autumn period. With his abundant financial resources and strong army, Duke Huan of Qi annihilated and annexed dozens of feudal lords such as Tan and Sui, rapidly expanding his territory and becoming the wealthiest and most powerful feudal state in the East.
This is the site of Duke Huan Tai, located in Zibo, Shandong. It is said that this was once a place where Duke Huan of Qi hosted banquets for feudal lords and gathered courtiers. There is also a saying that this is Duke Huan’s worship platform. For thousands of years, this place has become a fertile land, and the people who cultivate it here are reaping the joy of a bountiful harvest on the land that Duke Huan of Qi used to squander. However, the final outcome of the generation of hegemons was very bleak. After Guan Zhong’s death, Duke Huan of Qi favored his courtiers, so that when he was seriously ill and unable to govern, several courtiers acted recklessly. Duke Huan’s sons also fought against each other for the throne, leaving the palace empty and the generation of hegemons withered. Duke Huan of Qi was a character worthy of special attention, and his establishment of the Spring and Autumn period hegemon had a profound impact on Chinese history. Behind Duke Huan of Qi, the hegemonic politics that emerged from him had become the mainstream of the Spring and Autumn period, and hegemonic disputes continued to unfold in sequence.
(Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: It can be said that hegemonic politics have replaced the orthodox politics of the Zhou royal family, and it has been continuously advancing. Therefore, the reason why other feudal states are competing for hegemony is because of their right to rule, call for power, and everyone is trying their best to enrich the country and strengthen the military.)
During the Spring and Autumn period, feudal lords from different countries successively became hegemons, and the five most famous were known as the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period. There are several different interpretations of the Five Hegemons of the Spring and Autumn period, and the most influential ones are two. One refers to Duke Huan of Qi, Duke Xiang of Song, Duke Wen of Jin, Duke Mu of Qin, and King Zhuang of Chu, while the other refers to Duke Wen of Jin, King Zhuang of Chu, King Fuchai of Wu, and King Goujian of Yue. This is the famous Wu King’s spear, and this is the sharp Yue King Goujian sword. They are weapons of the kings of Wu and Yue, respectively. In the late Spring and Autumn period, two vassal states located in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, Wu and Yue, emerged one after another. They also aimed their troops directly at the Central Plains and joined the ranks of hegemony. However, the fact at that time was that neither King Fuchai of Wu nor King Goujian of Yue could organize large-scale feudal alliances like Duke Huan of Qi, nor were they widely accepted and recognized by the vassals. The hegemony after Duke Huan of Qi was mainly carried out between Jin and Chu.
This is a background painting of an oil painting collected in the Shanxi Museum. The scene depicted in the middle school is the Battle of Chengpu, where Jin defeated Chu and established its hegemony. Interestingly, there is also a background painting at the Hubei Museum that is highly consistent with the oil painting in Shanxi Museum in terms of color and character images. The only difference is that the scene recorded in this painting is the Battle of Chengpu, where Chu defeated Jin. The rivalry between Jin and Chu in the past seems to have spanned thousands of years and is still present in today’s Jin and Chu regions, with interesting aerial confrontations. In the struggle for supremacy between Jin and Chu, the first to step onto the historical stage was the ruler of Jin, Duke Wen of Jin. This is a painting by Li Tang titled “The Restoration of Duke Wen of Jin”, which was painted in the late Northern Song Dynasty and is now collected at the Metropolitan Museum in New York, USA. The entire painting is divided into six sections and uses a series of drawings to comprehensively capture the more than ten stories of Duke Wen of Jin, Chong’er, who was exiled by his father for nineteen years. When Chong’er fled, Hu Yan, Jie Zitui, and others accompanied him to the state of Song. Duke Xiang of Song gifted twenty horses, but when he arrived in the state of Zheng, Duke Wen of Zheng was impolite. When he arrived in the state of Qi, the ruler of Qi married his daughter to Chong’er. Chong’er once enjoyed wealth and no longer considered returning to the state of Jin. However, the princess of Qi and accompanying ministers designed to intoxicate Chong’er and secretly send him out of the state of Qi. Afterwards, Chong’er returned to the state of Chu, and the minister of Chu, Zi Yu, wanted to kill him. King Cheng of Chu honored him as a guest of honor.
(Shao Bei, Associate Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences: He (Chong’er) may not have thought about returning to the state of Jin to become a monarch at that time, but a series of things happened at that time. Duke Huai of Jin was very afraid of him returning to his home country, afraid that he would seize his position. However, due to the pressure of the situation, including encouragement from people around him, and coercion from Duke Huai of Jin, he finally firmly believed in his idea of returning to the state of Jin to become a monarch.)
The story of Duke Wen of Jin has been widely circulated among the people, especially in present-day Shanxi, where many places have formed unique customs. Every May and June, the northern region also enters intermittent rainy seasons. As the Cold Food Festival approaches, the people of Jiexiu area in Shanxi start to work early. The elderly in the village knead the noodles and shape them into swallows. This type of swallow made from noodles is called Zitui Yan, also known as Qingming Yan. In the dialect of Jiexiu in Shanxi, the pronunciation of “Yan” is the same as “Nian”. When the Jin Crown Prince Chong’er fled in hunger and cold, Jietui once cut off his thigh. The meat is cooked for Chong’er soup, and it was only with officials like Jie Zitui who were central, determined, and accompanied by life and death that the Jin people have achieved the Jin dynasty’s hegemonic cause that is still talked about. Nowadays, in the process of making Zi Tui Yan, people will definitely use scissors to cut out some patterns. On the one hand, the cut patterns will make Zi Tui Yan look more beautiful, and on the other hand, this also implies that the hegemon Jin Wengong and his ministers have always maintained a sense of worry, and will not forget the difficulty of the blade after becoming wealthy. While the Duke Wen of Jin thanked his loyal officials for their virtue and designated the day of Jie Zitui’s death as the Cold Food Festival. On this day, no fire was allowed in the whole country. Only some Dim sum like Zi Tuiyan and some melons and fruits were allowed to be eaten. After Zi Tuiyan steamed out of the cage, he would also be decorated with red flowers, which symbolized peace. When the pasta cooled, people would string Zi Tuiyan with willow branches and hang them on the lintel to send their thoughts to the virtuous officials who were proud in the Jin State, and pray for their family’s good fortune and safety.
Duke Wen of Jin, Chong Er, had a similar experience as Duke Huan of Qi, experiencing both the hardships of exile and the assistance of officials with humeral bones. He tasted the hardships of the human world, but also honed his strong will and extraordinary abilities. This is precisely why officials like Jie Zitui followed Duke Wen of Jin to the death. At the age of 62, Chong’er finally successfully returned to the state of Jin with the help of the state of Qin, becoming the ruler of Jin, and the era of Duke Wen of Jin finally began. After Duke Wen of Jin ascended to the throne, he quickly seized the opportunity to rectify internal affairs, develop production, and the state of Jin quickly became strong. Duke Wen of Jin also pursued a policy of respecting the king and repelling foreigners, making the state of Jin quickly become a new hegemon.
(Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: So when Duke Wen of Jin was dominating, the biggest difference was relying on his own strength. In the early Spring and Autumn period, Duke Huan of Qi could still use the banner of Zhou Tianzi to dominate. However, as time went on, this kind of borrowing became increasingly unrealistic. In such a situation, it had to rely on strength. Between countries, you had to rely on Zhou Li to restrain the other party, and no one listened. It was completely an era where people relied on their fists to speak.).
In 635 BC, there was an internal conflict among the Zhou royal family, and Wang Shu led an alliance with the Di people to attack Zhou. At this time, Duke Huan of Qi had already died, and there were no more hegemons in the Central Plains. Duke Wen of Jin, who had just ascended to the throne, was ambitious and took the suggestion of Minister Hu Yan to seek the advice of Marquis Mo Ruqin. He personally led a large army to escort King Xiang back to the royal city and assisted him in killing Wang Shudai, completely solving King Xiang’s long-standing worries. This act of respecting the king made Duke Wen of Jin famous throughout the world, and some weak feudal states began to seek refuge in the state of Jin.
This is a set of statues in the center of Houma City, Shanxi Province. Duke Wen of Jin has a majestic presence with his fingers pointing towards the sky. While respecting the king, Duke Wen of Jin continued to pursue the strategy of repelling the barbarians. At that time, the southern state of Chu was still the biggest calamity in the Central Plains. In 633 BC, the powerful army of Chu launched a fierce attack on the state of Song. Song was in danger and quickly sought help from Duke Wen of Jin. After Duke Wen of Jin reorganized his military preparations, he led a large army to confront the Chu army in 632 BC. The two sides engaged in a fierce battle in Chengpu. Five years before the start of the war between Jin and Chu, the exiled son of Jin, Chong’er, was treated with respect by King Cheng of Chu. Chong’er promised King Cheng of Chu that if he managed to ascend to the throne, he would lead a large army to fight against the Chu army in the future, just like two countries going to war. For the Chu army to retreat three times, which is ninety miles.
(Ji Kunzhang, a researcher at the Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology: Jin retreated three times and could withdraw from a terrain conducive to Jin’s warfare. At the same time, an ambush could be set up there. Therefore, in the Battle of Chengpu, Chu suffered a great defeat. Due to this defeat, Jin laid the foundation for victory and also laid the foundation for Jin’s hegemony for the next 150 years.)
The Battle of Chengpu is probably the earliest known and detailed recorded battle in Chinese history, and it is also a model of tactics to lure the enemy deep. After the Battle of Chengpu, Duke Wen of Jin convened a land practice alliance with the participation of eight feudal lords, and established a covenant to assist the royal family and not infringe on each other. In this alliance, King Xiang of Zhou personally attended the meeting and appointed Duke Wen of Jin as the Marquis Uncle. Compared with the previous Kuiqiu alliance, the ceremony of this alliance was formal and clear, more clearly indicating the royal family’s recognition of the hegemon. Unlike Duke Huan of Qi’s relatively gentle hegemony, Duke Wen of Jin’s hegemony was in the Battle of Chengpu. This also means that in the early Spring and Autumn period, the political means of feudal lords respecting kings became increasingly superficial, and relying on their power to speak gradually became the main theme of the Spring and Autumn period, The Zhou ritual established by the royal family will soon be trampled upon by various feudal states in the midst of chaotic wars. This is a set of tripods collected in the Shanxi Museum. Ji Kunzhang is a researcher at the Shanxi Institute of Archaeology, and the history of the Jin Dynasty has been his research topic.
(Researcher at Shanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology – Ji Kunzhang: This set of tripods, also known as the “Lie Ding”, is known as the “Five Ding”. This indicates that at that time, in the state of Jin, the title used by the monarchs could only be the “Five Ding”.).
At that time, the monarch of Jin used the Five Cauldrons, but hundreds of years later, the ritual system that had been strictly followed had been openly violated on the territory of Jin. In the same exhibition hall as the Five Cauldrons of Marquis Wen of Jin, there was also a group of seven relatively large bronze Cauldrons, and the owner of this group of Cauldrons turned out to be a minister of Jin.
(Shao Bei, Associate Researcher at the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Rites: From the perspective of the Spring and Autumn Period, the system of using utensils in the Spring and Autumn Period was generally one standard higher than that of the Western Zhou Dynasty. This is the first and second point. If viewed vertically from time, the Spring and Autumn Period was an overall violation of the Western Zhou Dynasty.)
While violating the Zhou ritual, the hegemons began to formulate their own game rules. The new game rules originated from the Zhou ritual, but the rules were no longer adjusted by the relationship between the Zhou royal family and the feudal lords, but by the relationship between the hegemons and the feudal lords. After Jin became the hegemon, the rights and obligations between the feudal lords and the hegemons continued to be institutionalized, standardized, and ceremonial. During the more than 100 years of Jin’s hegemonic prosperity, it was recorded that there were 38 major alliances presided over by Jin. In the records of the Spring and Autumn Annals, the monarch of the State of Lu only went to Luoyang to meet the King of Zhou once, before performing the court ceremony. However, he went to the State of Jin to meet as many as 21 times. The State of Jin established a series of court appointments and tribute systems for the feudal lords, and each country had to follow the State of Jin to send troops to suppress the disobedient feudal lords. Disputes between the feudal lords were resolved through the mediation of the State of Jin, which obviously went further than the State of Qi. During the period of Jin’s hegemony, the hegemon eventually replaced the King of Zhou as the true ruler of the world. The process of great power struggle in the Spring and Autumn period was also a process of annexation by feudal lords. Through wars, Qi first and then conquered more than 30 countries, becoming an Eastern power, Chu first and then conquered more than 40 countries, becoming a Southern power, Jin successively conquered more than 20 countries, conquered more than 40 countries, and became a Central Plains power, Qin merged more than ten countries, becoming a Western power. The Central Plains has always been the center of the struggle for hegemony. With the process of respecting the king and resisting the barbarians, the Central Plains cultural identity centered on Zhou Li was strengthened, and the Central Plains culture spread to the surrounding areas, ultimately forming the concept of Huaxia.
(Professor Chen Xiangling from the National Defense University of the People’s Liberation Army of China: We say that compared to the Four Barbarians, the Chinese concept is more advanced, supported by Confucianism, Taoism, military, Legalism, and other ideologies. Therefore, this concept has a unified center for different tribes, and ultimately becomes a family. Therefore, it has played a significant ideological guiding role in the formation of our nation and the Chinese nation.)
As the struggle for hegemony unfolded, powerful vassal states were busy expanding their territories and enhancing their national strength, allowing the culture of the Central Plains to spread to the four barbarians, and the southern state of Chu was one of the very important vassal states. This is a plant called Copper Grass Flower, and wherever there is Copper Grass Flower, there is Copper Mine. As early as the Spring and Autumn period, people discovered this pattern. This is Tonglv Mountain in Daye, Hubei. In September, the copper grass flowers on Tonglv Mountain were still lush green, and two months later, the mountain had changed from green to purple. This place had already become the largest copper mining site in the state of Chu more than two thousand years ago, earning the name Daye. On the lush Tonglv Mountain, where copper plants bloom, there is a mining site from the state of Chu back then.
Chen Shuxiang, a researcher at the Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology: This is currently the largest ancient mining site that can be seen in the world, China, and even the world. In ancient times, if there was copper, it had strength. We can see that all weapons at this time were made of copper, and it is not barbarian. From the Spring and Autumn period to the Warring States period, its smelting and casting of bronze have reached its peak. In the late Spring and Autumn period bronze discovered in Xichuan, it can use the wax loss method.
Copper mines in the past, like oil today, were the most important strategic material. Whoever possessed mineral resources and advanced copper production techniques would become a powerful country.
In the Hubei Museum, exquisitely crafted Chu state bronze artifacts can be seen everywhere. At that time, the most advanced method of losing wax to make copper had been widely used in the Chu state, which confirmed the strong national strength of the Chu state. Moreover, the maturity of the bronze culture also marked the fact that the Chu state, which has always been regarded as barbarian by the Central Plains, has become an important component of the Central Plains culture.
(Researcher from Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology – Wan Wenwen: When we discuss the origin of Chinese civilization, in the early stages, it was said to be monomorphic, that is, the Yellow River Basin and the Central Plains culture, which is unique. Now we say it is binary coupling. In fact, the main part of Chinese culture should be composed of the Yangtze River Basin and the Yellow River Basin. For example, the combination relationship of our ritual vessels, we all say it is the ding and gui, which reflects the same ritual system. We say that ritual vessels are the objectification of ritual systems, a form of objectification. It (Chu State) still follows the ritual system of the Western Zhou Dynasty, so it has been implemented or implemented.)
By the time of King Zhuang of Chu, Chu culture had become a subtle part of Chinese culture. However, as Chinese culture entered the land of Jingchu, the hegemonic politics of the Central Plains also made the young monarch King Zhuang of Chu eager to try it. King Zhuang of Chu was still very young at that time, and his kingdom was still in a state of internal and external troubles. In order to observe the dynamics of the court and the public, as well as to let other countries relax their vigilance against him. King Zhuang ruled for three years without paying attention to government affairs. He did not issue any political orders and did not allow anyone to advise him. After three years of absurdity, the unbearable minister of Qi wrote a letter to advise King Zhuang of Chu. They wrote a riddle to King Zhuang of Chu, saying, “In the south, there is a bird that falls on a mound and does not spread its wings for three years, remaining silent. What is the name of this bird?”? At this time, King Zhuang of Chu had clearly realized the urgent desire of the whole country to enrich the country and strengthen the military. He then said a sentence that has been remembered by the world to this day: “If you don’t fly for three years, the flying generals will soar into the sky, if you don’t sing for three years, the singing generals will be amazing.”. This is the origin of the astonishing idiom. Afterwards, King Zhuang of Chu began to reorganize his court and restore his monarchy, making Chu one of the most powerful countries outside of the Central Plains. The increasingly prosperous Chu state then began to covet the Central Plains. However, unlike the previous Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin, King Zhuang of Chu did not have much reverence for the king. On the contrary, he wanted to completely destroy the authority of the Zhou royal family.
(Shao Bei, Associate Researcher of the History Institute of the Chinese Academy of Rites: Then he happened to be his vanguard against the Lu Hun army, which was near Yichuan in Henan Province. After arriving there, because it was close to Luoyang and the Eastern Zhou Dynasty Luoyang, he also marched northward and arrived at the Eastern Zhou Wang Ji. He then asked about the importance of the Zhou Ding. At that time, the King of Zhou sent Wang Sunman to meet with the King of Chu and said that although Zhou De was declining, the fate of the Ding remained unchanged. The weight of the Ding cannot be questioned, which means that although our week has declined, this fate still exists. You cannot casually ask.) Ask, and this is whether it is in virtue or in the cauldron, not about the weight of the cauldron. It depends on whether you have this virtue. After hearing this, King Zhuang of Chu went back
Nine years later, the state of Chu and the state of Jin engaged in a decisive battle to determine their hegemony. In the Battle of Chu, the Jin army suffered a major defeat, and their hegemonic position was severely damaged. In 589 BC, the state of Chu formed an alliance with the central plains feudal lords of Lu, Qin, Song, Wei, Zheng, Qi, Cao, and others in Shu (now Shandong, Tai’an, and Xixi). This alliance confirmed the hegemonic position of the state of Chu. Since the Spring and Autumn period of the Western Zhou Dynasty, the state of Chu, which had always been regarded as a barbarian, finally became the hegemon recognized by the feudal lords of the Central Plains. The establishment of a hegemonic regime by the state of Chu demonstrated their transition from barbarians to China.
The State of Jin was not willing to lose its hegemonic position. After years of rest, in 575 BC, the State of Jin challenged the State of Chu, and the two countries engaged in another great war to compete for hegemony. The main forces of both sides competed in Yanling, and this decisive battle was known as the Battle of Yanling. After the Battle of Yanling, the state of Jin regained its dominance, but the state of Chu did not suffer serious damage, and its national strength remained strong, constantly eyeing Jin. In the thirty years after the Battle of Yanling (546 BC), at the invitation of the Minister of Song, Xiang Xu, representatives of 14 feudal states including Jin, Chu, Wei, and Cao gathered in Suiyang to discuss. This meeting was known as the Military Pacification Conference, which agreed to stop wars among the countries and regard Jin and Chu as the common hegemons.
This is the burial site of the Zhou royal family, which was excavated in 2002. This unique ride by the Zhou emperor in the world confirms the ancient records of the emperor riding six horses. However, the remains of six galloping horses, which have become the same color as the yellow soil, are engraved with the last and last authority and dignity of the Zhou royal family.
With the loss of authority of the Eastern Zhou Emperor and the appearance of a polite etiquette society, the etiquette system of the Western Zhou Dynasty is gradually being abandoned. The hegemons who replaced the actual position of the Zhou Emperor rely on their strong national strength to maintain power. They only have a relationship with the feudal lords as alliance leaders and subordinates, without a relationship between monarchs and subjects. The political dominance of the Spring and Autumn period itself was a subversion of the legal system of the Western Zhou dynasty, and social changes surged. As the struggle for hegemony evolved into the annexation of feudal lords, another era of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, an incredibly complex and fresh Warring States period, was approaching. Wars between feudal states would become even more brutal, and the core cohesion of Chinese culture was already unbreakable. The people in the midst of the war yearned for reunification, and China would thus enter a historical process from great division to great unity.
90 Seconds of History: Apricot Altar Lecture
In 497 BC, Confucius, who was unsuccessful in the state of Lu and had the ambition to rebuild the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, began a fourteen year career as an official. During this period, he traveled to the states of Wei, Cao, Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai, and Chu, experiencing numerous hardships and ups and downs. In 484 BC, after fourteen years of wandering outside, Confucius, who was 68 years old, returned to the state of Lu. Political disappointment and the arrival of old age caused him to cut off his desire for career advancement. From then on, he focused on educational activities. The flourishing of Xingtan Lectures may have been imagined by painters, but as the first person in Chinese history to establish a private school, Confucius was the first person in Chinese history to take education as a profession and popularize academic knowledge.